Grammar:Word classes
Grammar of Tovasala: Word classes |
classes: articles, pronouns, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adpositions, conjunctions, and interjections. All classes except adverbs are granted default status.
All words in Tovasala are categorised into nineClass | Animacy | Transitivity | Wordhood |
---|---|---|---|
Article | A | — | N |
Pronoun | A | I | N |
Noun | A/I | I | N |
Adjective | A | I | N |
Verb | I | T/I | N |
Adposition | A | T/I | Y |
Conjunction | A | I | Y |
Interjection | I | I | Y/N |
Articles
Both of Tovasala's articles, l (the) and un (a/an/some), are always attached to native host roots à la Romanian.
Definite
English has one definite article, the, which translates into -lo (masculine), -la (feminine) and -le (neuter) in Tovasala.
With consonant-initial roots
-Le becomes -ile when placed after standalone ch, d, h, j, m, n, t, w, x, y, or z:
- riāntlo (the father), riāntla (the mother), rīantile (the parent).
For roots ending in a consonant clusters bl, fl, gl, kl, pl, and sl, -il* is used instead while the cluster's l turns into ŕ:
- sibŕilo (the brother), sibŕila (the sister), sibŕile (the sibling).
-Il* also follows br, dr, fr, gr, kr, pr, tr, or vr:
- aumbrilo (the man), aumbrila (the woman), aumbrile (the human).
and is also placed after gn in one notable instance:
- signilo (the swan cob), signila (the swan pen), signile (the swan).
In all other cases, neuter nouns use -lé:
- boavlo (the bull), boavla (the cow), bouvlé (the cattle).
When a plural noun is used, -s is likewise added to the end:
- riāntlos (the fathers), riāntlas (the mothers), riāntiles (the parents);
- boavlos (the bulls), boavlas (the cows), boavlés (the cattle herd).
With vowel-initial roots
-Lo/-la/-le exhibits elision similar to French when it becomes l' before a vowel:
- l'aumbro (the man), l'aumbra (the woman), l'aumbré (the person).
It is retained after the plural -s is added:
- l'aumbros (the men), l'aumbras (the women), l'aumbrés (the persons/people).
When an adjective and noun both begin with vowels, the adjective goes first:
- l'aulxaum'aumbro (or in compound form, l'aulxaumgaumbro) (the tall man; the -g- interfix buffers the two aum tokens); l'aulxaum'aumbrouso (the two tall men), l'aulxaum'aumbros (the tall men).
If the adjective is consonant-initial, then the l goes on the right of the nominalised target:
- magnello ńaumbri (the important man; the movable ń prevents hiatus in vowels around spaces).
Consonant-initial nouns take the -l, as in aulxaumi lofardiles (the tall mountains).
When both noun and adjective begin with consonants, the adjective precedes the normal noun, as in foarti boamiles (the strong walls). Subject descriptions also act as adjectives and occasionally follow the noun, especially when case markers come into play:
- Jefroń, Aulmaderiji (Jeff, Who Lives at Home), maunstrile hoavarduloadi (the monster at the bottom of the lake).
Special cases
As a standalone word, le(s) precedes Nonsentient nouns with underdotted termisons (mainly internationally recognised terms):
- le kasinọ (the casino), le guãrbạ (the guava), les toamâtọ (the tomatoes).
Les/los/las also precedes imported surnames, especially when discussing families and duos:
- les DuPont, les Rockefeller, les Mandela, los Hardy (The Hardy Boys), las Pelekai (Lilo and Nani).
At least one word treats the particle differently on account of its Japanese origin:
- l'animé, but les animé.
Several country names retain their traditional plural form when converted into Tovasala:
- L'Ulemuzèmes (Netherlands),[1] Mauldivlés (Maldives), Filipiniles (Philippines), Bahamlas (Bahamas).
Indefinite
English's indefinite article, a(n), corresponds to -uno (masculine), -una (feminine), and -une (neuter) in Tovasala:
- nekuno (a tomcat), nekuna (a queen cat), nekune (a cat);
- mosheluno (a male meerkat), mosheluna (a female meerkat), moshelune (a meerkat).
Before vowels, it turns into un':
- un'aumbra (a woman), un'edo (a boy), un'elemente (an element).
Pluralised, it becomes the word for some while adhering to the same elision rule as l':
- un'edos (some boys), un'aumbras (some women), un'aumbrèdes (some children), kualdunes (some monarchs); gomaidunes (some secrets), unes spafạ (some swords).
When a case mesoclitic is involved, the host root is assumed to be definite unless un- is placed between both:
- obenginti (in the house); eskoltugu (outside school); nekulemu (below the cat's paws); mobilunabuamu (furnished with a car).
Tovasala also makes use of the partitive case in forms such as bauterunète (some butter), faloavunète (some bread), and mubrolunète (some milk). (-Unet, formed from -un + diminutive suffix -et, literally means "a small version of something".)
Pronouns
Personal
Tovasala's pronoun system is modelled after those of Spanish and Quechua, and honours the T–V distinction found in various Romance languages.[2] All pronouns decline for case, number, and gender, as do nouns. This table covers the basic neuter forms; for a complete rundown, see Grammar:Pronoun chart.
Person | Type | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subject | Object | Indirect | Reflexive | Reflexive Emphatic | ||
1st | Singular | mé | mié | madé | sebmé | seblimé |
Plural | més | miés | madés | sebmés | seblimés | |
2nd (Familiar) | Singular | té | tié | tadé | sebté | seblité |
Plural | tés | tiés | tadés | sebtés | seblités | |
2nd (Formal) | Singular | usté | ustié | ustadé | sebusté | seblusté |
Plural | ustés | ustiés | ustadés | sebustes | seblustés | |
3rd | Singular | lumé | lumié | lumadé | seblumé | sebŕilumé |
Plural | lumés | lumiés | lumadés | seblumés | sebŕilumés | |
4th | Subject | selbé | selbie | selbade | sësselbe | sebŕiselbe |
Object | selbème | selbemie | selbemade | sësselbème | sebŕiselbème |
Possessive
The language employs 168 possessive suffixoids based on the pronoun stems; they inflect for gender, number, and alienability.
Person | Gender | Number | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||
Inalienable | Alienable | Inalienable | Alienable | Inalienable | Alienable | ||
1st (Inclusive) | Masculine | oanim | oangim | oanbim | oanobim | oansim | oanosim |
Feminine | aunim | aungim | aunbim | aunobim | aunsim | aunosim | |
Neuter | inim | ingim | inbim | inobim | insim | inosim | |
1st (Exclusive) | Masculine | — | — | oanbeum | oanobeum | oanseum | oanoseum |
Feminine | — | — | aunbeum | aunobeum | aunseum | aunoseum | |
Neuter | — | — | inbeum | inobeum | inseum | inoseum | |
2nd (Familiar) | Masculine | oanit | oangit | oanbit | oanobit | oansit | oanosit |
Feminine | aunit | aungit | aunbit | aunobit | aunsit | aunosit | |
Neuter | init | ingit | inbit | inobit | insit | inosit | |
2nd (Honorable) | Masculine | oanut | oangut | oanbut | oanobut | oansut | oanosut |
Feminine | aunut | aungut | aunbut | aunobut | aunsut | aunosut | |
Neuter | inut | ingut | inbut | inobut | insut | inosut | |
3rd | Masculine | oanil | oangil | oanbil | oanobil | oansil | oanosil |
Feminine | aunil | aungil | aunbil | aunobil | aunsil | aunosil | |
Neuter | inil | ingil | inbil | inobil | insil | inosil | |
4th (Subject) | Masculine | oanealb | oangealb | oanbealb | oanobealb | oansealb | oanosealb |
Feminine | aunealb | aungealb | aunbealb | aunobealb | aunsealb | aunosealb | |
Neuter | inealb | ingealb | inbealb | inobealb | insealb | inosealb | |
4th (Object) | Masculine | oanealbem | oangealbem | oanbealbem | oanobealbem | oansealbem | oanosealbem |
Feminine | aunealbem | aungealbem | aunbealbem | aunobealbem | aunsealbem | aunosealbem | |
Neuter | inealbem | ingealbem | inbealbem | inobealbem | insealbem | inosealbem | |
Interrogative (?) | Masculine | oaneak | oangeak | oanbeak | oanobeak | oanseak | oanoseak |
Feminine | auneak | aungeak | aunbeak | aunobeak | aunseak | aunoseak | |
Neuter (Inanimate) | ineak | ingeak | inbeak | inobeak | inseak | inoseak | |
Neuter (Animate) | inreak | ingreak | inbreak | inobreak | insreak | inosreak | |
Relative | Masculine | oaneaj | oangeaj | oanbeaj | oanobeaj | oanseaj | oanoseaj |
Feminine | auneaj | aungeaj | aunbeaj | aunobeaj | aunseaj | aunoseaj | |
Neuter (Inanimate) | ineaj | ingeaj | inbeaj | inobeaj | inseaj | inoseaj | |
Neuter (Animate) | inreaj | ingreaj | inbreaj | inobreaj | insreaj | inosreaj |
Referential
Tovasala employs a special pronoun, selbé/selbo/selba, to denote the subject last referred to. Derived from German, it acts the same way as its Lojban influence, ri.
- Jauradu vato, prendealb pueteandiles. (When he goes, he takes the keys.) (The -ealb is the -o the sentence refers to, and no one else.)
When the subject is also the object, selbié/selbio/selbia is used:
- Jauradu vata, toute veyisat selbia. (When she goes, everyone sees her.)
If another sentence refers to the object, then selbème/selbemo/selbema is used:
- Jauno veyat l'aibũre; dolshaumeriemealbem. (John sees the tree. It is very tall.)
When two or more items are stated, a reference number follows selb*/selbem*, as demonstrated in this translation from Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (Chapter 135, "The Chase — Third Day"):
|
|
Here, sëlssuodadi refers to the ship Captain Ahab himself is on, and inealbtrigi refers to "the second hearse".
Relative
In addition, the language possesses several relative pronouns, all of which are counterparts to the interrogatives and begin with j.
Pronoun | Interrogative | Parent morpheme | English meaning |
---|---|---|---|
jiène | kiène | -iēn | who |
jiēnie | kiēnie | -iēn | whom |
jesène | kesène | -esen | which, that |
jesenie | kesenie | -esen | which, that (obj.) |
Nouns
Gendered nouns
In Tovasala, nouns given to members of the taxonomic kingdom Animalia are assigned masculine (male) and feminine (female) forms, ending in -o and -a respectively. This is the case for human beings, as shown below:
- aumbro (man; male human) corresponds to aumbra (woman; female human). Similarly, edo (young male) corresponds to eda (young female).
Plurals are formed by adding an -s at the end:
- aumbros (men)/aumbras (women); edos (young males)/edas (young females).
The above rules also apply to non-human animals:
- neko(s)/neka(s) (cat[s]); nâyo(s)/nâya(s) (dog[s]); tofualo(s)/tofuala(s) (whale[s]).
Neuter nouns
When the subject's gender is unknown, undetermined, unspecified, or irrelevant, the neuter form (-e) is assumed; this also applies to groups and crowds with members in both genders:
- aumbré(s) (person[s]); riānte(s) (parents); biviēnède(s) (young person[s]); sibande(s) (raccoon[s]); nâye(s) (dog[s]); tofuale(s) (whale[s]).
Although they are living organisms, plants and trees are considered neuter:
- plievlé (plant), l'aibũre (tree), floarvlé (flower), yemplievlé (garden/swamp weed).
All other nouns are considered inanimate, and also end with -e in most cases:
- chairlé (chair; concrete object), voasenile (summer; abstract concept), l'astranule (astronomy; study/field).
If a neuter word's last three letters are e + C + e, then the penultimate e receives a grave accent (è):
- moshelo (male meerkat), moshela (female meerkat), moshèle (meerkat).
Several dozen Sentient nouns retain the original -o or -a of their original etymons, marking them with an underdot. This is one of only two cases where le(s) and une(s) can be used as real words.
- une kasinọ (a casino), plũrịme mangạ (several manga volumes), le piezạ (the pizza), les toamâtọ (the tomatoes).
Masculine nouns
Tovasala boasts a small set of inherently masculine words rooted in Christianity: Paipo (the Pope),[3] Domeno (the Lord), Jesuyo (Jesus), Kristo (Christ).
Feminine nouns
While inanimate in nature, Tovasala nonetheless follows English tradition with the feminine plova (boat)/plovarda (ship), and all other words for water transportation. Vênauza, the language's name for the planet Venus, is also feminine; so is Bahama, referring to one of the islands in the Bahamian archipelago.[4]
Occupations
For words in this category, the same rules for gender apply:
- polieziēno (policeman)/polieziēna (policewoman) — formed from polieze (the police [force])
- pîloto/pîlota (pilot)
- flâmiviēno/flâmiviēna (firefighter)
- livrusontiēno/livrusontiēna (librarian)
- lampriēno/lampriēna (leader [of a country])
- kuendiēno/kuendiēna (driver [of a car]))
- kualdo (king)/kualda (queen)
- kualtaudro (prince)/kualtaudra (princess)
- duko (duke)/duka (duchess)
- Senoro (Sro., Mister/Mr.)/Senora (Sra., Missis/Mrs.); Eusenora (Eusa., Miss/Ms.)
- Aultado/Aultada (Highness)
- Paip(l)o (the Pope)
Proper nouns
Proper nouns are converted per Tovasala's spelling conventions. All first names of people are given -o/-a endings, depending on the subject's gender. Names of languages are treated as neuter, ending with -e. In similar fashion to Ido, place names can either end with -e or inherit the -o or -a from the original word, but remain neuter.
Examples include Jauno (John; male name), Samanfa (Samantha; female given name), Karibine (Caribbean; place name), Tokýo (place name with -o), Somalida (Somalia; place name with -a), and Mandạrine (Mandarin; language). For more, please see Grammar:Words and phrases.
Imported words
Certain first names and surnames, terms such as QWERTY, and names of species (such as Homo sapiens) are mainly borrowed from English, and neither change their spellings nor inflect in Tovasala. This is the only instance where the language permits the use of c and q.
Verbs
All verbs in Tovasala end with -ar in their infinitive forms, and possess regular conjugation throughout (with occasional spelling alterations). As in the Romance languages, they are marked for person, tense, aspect, mood, number, and sometimes gender; additionally, they conjugate for clusivity in the first person.
Affixes
Suffixes
Infinitive verbs end with -ar, as many do in Spanish. Conjugation involves
- a series of 32 termisons for indicative forms, mostly based on pronoun stems;
- -aik for the conditional and subjunctive moods;
- -ait for the imperative;
- -aij-ind for the prospective aspect;
- -ant for the progressive aspect (present participle);
- -asant for the continuative aspect;
- -aid for past participles.
The -av- affix is also used for perfect forms, resulting in:
- -avar, perfect infinitive;
- -av-ind, perfect indicative;
- -avaik, perfect conditional;
- -anv-ind, progressive perfect;
- -asanv-ind, continuative perfect;
- -aijav-ind, prospective perfect.
Tenses
There are six tense markers which are added between verbal stems and indicatives/other termisons; the present tense has none.
- -lurip — Recent Past
- -lur — Simple Past
- -lurel — Discontinuous Past
- -lureng — Distant Past
- -lir — Future
- -luvir — Future in the Past
Indicatives
Tovasala's indicative termison system operates similarly to those in Latin and the Turkic languages. The pronoun stems provide the basis of its indicative clitics in all persons except the third, which uses -at/-isivat/-isat.
Person | Number | ||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1st (Inclusive) | -im | -isivim | -isim |
1st (Exclusive) | -isiveum | -iseum | |
2nd (Familiar) | -it/-ot | -isivit | -isit |
2nd (Honorable) | -ut/-ump/-ulb | -isivut | -isut |
3rd | -at | -isivat | -isat |
4th (Subject) | -ealb | -isivealb | -isealb |
4th (Object) | -ealbem | -isivealbem | -isealbem |
Interrogative | -eak | -isiveak | -iseak |
Interrogative (Personal) | -eank | -isiveank | -iseank |
Relative | -eaj | -isiveaj | -iseaj |
Relative (Personal) | -eanj | -isiveanj | -iseanj |
Verbal nouns, meaning "an act of...", can be formed by adding -é at the end, or the standard -e if the root ends in eC. Resultative nouns, meaning "the result of doing...", are formed with -ain followed by an e.[5]
Sometimes, verbs can inflect for gender by simply adding -o/-a after the tense/mood suffix, akin to the past tense in Russian. Unless necessary, this information is left out in spoken/written speech.
- Chuzato (He cooks), Troavata (She works), Aunitturelat (Used to be yours [addressing a female listener]).
These forms can also inflect in the dual and plural:
- Flegisimo (We are nurses; male speakers), Virisiveum (We'll both go; to listener), Bengiesmabilisita (You can sing well; to females), Nẽrliēnisat (They are teachers; of males and females).
Prefix
Negation is expressed with the nal- prefix, which always precedes the tense slot (and is the leftmost possible morpheme in a Tovasala word). Due to morphological processes, nal- always turns into naŕ- unless before a beginning vowel, b, h, or l.
Inflection types
Finite
Tovasala's finite markers are the 32 indicative (inf) termisons, plus -ait (imperative/imp).
- duerim (I love), duerit (you love), duerat (he/she/it loves), duerisim (we love), duerisit (you guys love), duerisat (they love); duerait (love!).
Nonfinite
The nonfinite markers are -ar (infinitive/inf), -ant (present participle/pr.ptcp), -aid (past participle/pst.ptcp), and -aik (conditional/subjunctive / cond/sbj).
- duerar (to love), duerant (loving), dueraidi (loved [by an entity]), dueraik (could/would/should love; that sbj love).
TAM system
Tense
As mentioned earlier, Tovasala expresses tense with -lurip (recent past/pst.rec), -lur (simple past/pst), -lurel (discontinuous past/pst.disc), -lureng (distant past/pst.dst), -lir (future/fut), and -luvir (future in the past/pst-fut); the present is unmarked (Ø).
- duerat (loves), duerluripat (just loved), duerlurat (loved), duerlurelat (used to love), duerlurengat (loved long ago), duerlirat (will love), duerluvirat (would love).
Aspect
Aspect is expressed with -ant (progressive/prog), -asant (continuative/cont), -avat (perfect/perf), and -aijat (prospective/prsp).
- duerant (is loving), duerasant (is still loving), dueravat (has loved), dueraijat (is about to love).
Mood
Mood is expressed with the realis -at (indicative/ind), and the irrealis -ait (infinitive/inf) and -aik (conditional/subjunctive / cond/sjv).
- duerat (loves), duerait (love!), dueraik (could/would/should love; that sbj love).
-ait is also used for optative statements, formed with VSO:
- Aubogait-suertiles fuindondu tio. (May the odds ever be in your favour.)
- Tüvvait-lumo, Diēvomistu! (Let him go for Heaven's sake!)
Aktionsart
Aktionsart, German for lexical aspect, concerns the structure of verbs in relation to time.
Active
Active verbs in Tovasala are always transitive in SVO/OVS sentences, and intransitive in their passive forms.
- Brîanto duerat Ashlêya. (Brian loves Ashley.)
- Brîanto duerat Ashlêyieba. (Brian is loved by Ashley. = Ashley loves Brian.) (-ieb is the ergative case marker.)
- Brîanto dueraidat. (Brian is loved. = Someone loves Brian.)
Stative
Intransitive verbs are stative, along with forms stemming from nominal, adjectival, and adpositional roots.
- Esine toutwobu hodiēltisat. (These things always happen.) (Intransitive Verb)
- Jauno pîlautturelat. (John was once a pilot.) (Noun)
- Esan'aumbro ńaulshaumat. (That man is tall.) (Adjective)
- Wilmintaune proximat kortileń Ătlăntiki. (Wilmington is near the Atlantic shore.) (Adposition)
- Tristavisit wob touti maurve! (You guys have been sad the whole time!)
Passive verbs are also intransitive/stative:
- Joalmaurvune guodaiddirisat ad filmtayène nouchemwobu. (A good time will be enjoyed at the movies tonight.)
Valency
As in English, Tovasala contains five levels of verbal valency: impersonal, intransitive, transitive, ditransitive, and tritransitive. Valency determines the number of arguments that a verbal predicate takes.
Impersonal
With impersonal verbs, a dummy subject such as "it" precedes the predicate. In Tovasala, they do not conjugate in the passive voice at all; words dealing with weather conditions are the most common examples, among them pleuvar (to rain) and nivindar (to snow). Whereas English uses "It rains", Tovasala drops the subject entirely and simply uses Pleuvat.
Intransitive
In sentences with intransitive verbs, the subject (S) is the only argument involved. In Tovasala, intransitives also lack passive conjugation; examples include sujar (be identified as), hodiezar (happen/occur/take place), and adjective-/noun-/adposition-based constructs.
- EsineS hodiezzurelat. (This used to happen.)
- TuortileS shoulat. (The cake is white.)
- Mạriya SkautiS kualddurat. (Mary of Scotland was a queen.)
Transitive
Transitive verbs normally take a subject (agent; A) and an object (O) (patient; P) in sentences; Tovasala examples include dezar (say), fuostar (hear), giesmar (sing), toakar (play music/perform), skribar (write), veyar (see), mandar (send), tenar (have/hold), and kuendar (drive).
- VeyatoS/A l'ourème.O/P (He sees the city.)
- GiesmisataS/A giesmaidune.O/P (They [the women] sing a song.)
Transitives also behave like intransitives when no object is present, as in:
- BobinoS troavat bromu. (Bobby works hard.)
Verbs of motion, such as var (go) and hendar (walk), are only transitive when referring to distance covered:
- Nend hendaikimS/A kuinsente hengardiO/P—nend hendaikim selbème shobreli... (And I would walk 500 miles—and I would walk 500 more...)
In all other cases, they are nominally intransitive:
- MobilinsimeS tezịmmurelat. (Our car was once a slowpoke.)
At least one verb, vũrdar (consider), uses a non-core argument (oblique; Ob) that governs the essive case:
- VũrddurisatS/A lumiaO/P fahịmnandu.Ob (They took her for a fool.)
Ditransitive
Ditransitive verbs take a subject and two objects, one direct and the other indirect (I). Tovasala marks the indirect object with the ad adposition, as shown in this example involving obrar (give):
- MafeuloS/A obrulddirat l'aumbredadaI livriles.O/P (Matthew will give the books to the girl.)
Verbs whose stems end in -obr govern the dative case:
- RiāntoS/A sidobrardat fraulizadile.I (Daddy strongly approves of the union.) (Sidobrar literally means "give a yes [sid] to".)
Tritransitive
Some sources classify English bet as tritransitive (taking three objects). The Tovasala equivalent, gealar, requires an indirect object, a direct object, and a relative or prepositional clause at most:
- GealimaS/A tadoI zanaurtuorttriemouseO/P jiēr Bellwether rëvvolbaiddirata.RCl (I bet you two slices of carrot cake that Bellwether gets re-elected.)
- ShĩrlêyaS/A gealavat tiōŕaunealbadeI deykiloge daulẽriO/P ńaup suikolpuozi bouŕalistesèle.PCl (Shirley's bet her friend $10,000 on the traitor's deserved possible abdication.)
Conjugation models
Depending on the last one or two root letters, all verbs in Tovasala fall into one of several conjugation models. In the following paradigms, verbal affixes are marked in green; deviations from those or the parent roots are bolded.
Type 1
This type is the most resistant to mutations, occurring after b, f, g, k, p, Vr, or v (except if uniliteral v- is involved). This is Tovasala's standard regular conjugation, as demonstrated by this example involving skribar (to write).
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | skribim | skribisivim | skribisim | I write | we both write | we write |
1st (Exclusive) | skribisiveum | skribiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | skribit | skribisivit | skribisit | you write | you both write | you all write |
2nd (Honorable) | skribut | skribisivut | skribisut | |||
3rd | skribat | skribisivat | skribisat | he/she/it writes | they both write | they write |
4th (Subject) | skribealb | skribisivealb | skribisealb | sbj write(s) | ||
4th (Object) | skribealbem | skribisivealbem | skribisealbem | |||
Interrogative | skribeak | skribisiveak | skribiseak | what writes? | which two write? | which ones write? |
Interrogative (Personal) | skribeank | skribisiveank | skribiseank | who writes? | which two people write? | which people write? |
Relative | skribeaj | skribisiveaj | skribiseaj | who writes | both of which write | which write |
Relative (Personal) | skribeanj | skribisiveanj | skribiseanj | who writes | both of whom write | who write |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | skriblurip- | sbj just wrote | ||||
Simple Past | skriblur- | sbj wrote | ||||
Discontinuous Past | skriblurel- | sbj used to write / once/formerly wrote | ||||
Distant Past | skriblureng- | sbj wrote long ago | ||||
Future | skriblir- | sbj will write | ||||
Future in the Past | skribluvir- | sbj would write |
Type 2a
Nearly all verbal roots ending with l are found in Type 2a, such as tanular (to study). L mutates into ŕ before the fourth-person indicatives.
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | tanulim | tanulisivim | tanulisim | I study | we both study | we study |
1st (Exclusive) | tanulisiveum | tanuliseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | tanulit | tanulisivit | tanulisit | you study | you both study | you all study |
2nd (Honorable) | tanulut | tanulisivut | tanulisut | |||
3rd | tanulat | tanulisivat | tanulisat | he/she/it studies | they both study | they study |
4th (Subject) | tanuŕealb | tanuŕisivealb | tanuŕisealb | sbj study/studies | ||
4th (Object) | tanuŕealbem | tanuŕisivealbem | tanuŕisealbem | |||
Interrogative | tanuleak | tanulisiveak | tanuliseak | what studies? | which two study? | which ones study? |
Interrogative (Personal) | tanuleank | tanulisiveank | tanuliseank | who studies? | which two people study? | which people study? |
Relative | tanuleaj | tanulisiveaj | tanuliseaj | who studies | both of which study | which study |
Relative (Personal) | tanuleanj | tanulisiveanj | tanuliseanj | who studies | both of whom study | who study |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | tanullurip- | sbj just studied | ||||
Simple Past | tanullur- | sbj studied | ||||
Discontinuous Past | tanullurel- | sbj used to study / once/formerly studied | ||||
Distant Past | tanullureng- | sbj studied long ago | ||||
Future | tanullir- | sbj will study | ||||
Future in the Past | tanulluvir- | sbj would study |
Below is the paradigm for äpparlar (to speak to/talk to/call on the phone).
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | äpparlim | äpparlisivim | äpparlisim | I speak to someone | we both speak to someone | we speak to someone |
1st (Exclusive) | äpparlisiveum | äpparliseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | äpparlit | äpparlisivit | äpparlisit | you speak to someone | you both speak to someone | you all speak to someone |
2nd (Honorable) | äpparlut | äpparlisivut | äpparlisut | |||
3rd | äpparlat | äpparlisivat | äpparlisat | he/she/it speaks to someone | they both speak to someone | they speak to someone |
4th (Subject) | äpparŕealb | äpparŕisivealb | äpparŕisealb | sbj speak(s) to someone | ||
4th (Object) | äpparŕealbem | äpparŕisivealbem | äpparŕisealbem | |||
Interrogative | äpparleak | äpparlisiveak | äpparliseak | what speaks to someone? | which two speak to someone? | which ones speak to someone? |
Interrogative (Personal) | äpparleank | äpparlisiveank | äpparliseank | who speaks to someone? | which two people speak to someone? | which people speak to someone? |
Relative | äpparleaj | äpparlisiveaj | äpparliseaj | who speaks to someone | both of which speak to someone | which speak to someone |
Relative (Personal) | äpparleanj | äpparlisiveanj | äpparliseanj | who speaks to someone | both of whom speak to someone | who speak to someone |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | äpparllurip- | sbj just spoke to someone | ||||
Simple Past | äpparllur- | sbj spoke to someone | ||||
Discontinuous Past | äpparllurel- | sbj used to spoke to someone / once/formerly spoke to someone | ||||
Distant Past | äpparllureng- | sbj spoke to someone long ago | ||||
Future | äpparllir- | sbj will speak to someone | ||||
Future in the Past | äpparlluvir- | sbj would speak to someone |
Type 2b
Type 2b, which conjugates the same way as 2a, changes the final rVl to rVnn in the fourth person (as seen with spral-, "to wash").
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | spralim | spralisivim | spralisim | I wash | we both wash | we wash |
1st (Exclusive) | spralisiveum | spraliseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | spralit | spralisivit | spralisit | you wash | you both wash | you all wash |
2nd (Honorable) | spralut | spralisivut | spralisut | |||
3rd | spralat | spralisivat | spralisat | he/she/it washes | they both wash | they wash |
4th (Subject) | sprannealb | sprannisivealb | sprannisealb | sbj wash(es) | ||
4th (Object) | sprannealbem | sprannisivealbem | sprannisealbem | |||
Interrogative | spraleak | spralisiveak | spraliseak | what washes? | which two wash? | which ones wash? |
Interrogative (Personal) | spraleank | spralisiveank | spraliseank | who washes? | which two people wash? | which people wash? |
Relative | spraleaj | spralisiveaj | spraliseaj | who washes | both of which wash | which wash |
Relative (Personal) | spraleanj | spralisiveanj | spraliseanj | who washes | both of whom wash | who wash |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | sprallurip- | sbj just washed | ||||
Simple Past | sprallur- | sbj washed | ||||
Discontinuous Past | sprallurel- | sbj used to wash / once/formerly washed | ||||
Distant Past | sprallureng- | sbj washed long ago | ||||
Future | sprallir- | sbj will wash | ||||
Future in the Past | spralluvir- | sbj would wash |
Type 2c
Type 2c handles almost all verb roots ending in Cl. Indicatives conjugate like 2a, while the l in tense suffixes is dropped. Below is an example involving taglar (to prepare).
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | taglim | taglisivim | taglisim | I prepare | we both prepare | we prepare |
1st (Exclusive) | taglisiveum | tagliseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | taglit | taglisivit | taglisit | you prepare | you both prepare | you all prepare |
2nd (Honorable) | taglut | taglisivut | taglisut | |||
3rd | taglat | taglisivat | taglisat | he/she/it prepares | they both prepare | they prepare |
4th (Subject) | tagŕealb | tagŕisivealb | tagŕisealb | sbj prepare(s) | ||
4th (Object) | tagŕealbem | tagŕisivealbem | tagŕisealbem | |||
Interrogative | tagleak | taglisiveak | tagliseak | what prepares? | which two prepare? | which ones prepare? |
Interrogative (Personal) | tagleank | taglisiveank | tagliseank | who prepares? | which two people prepare? | which people prepare? |
Relative | tagleaj | taglisiveaj | tagliseaj | who prepares | both of which prepare | which prepare |
Relative (Personal) | tagleanj | taglisiveanj | tagliseanj | who prepares | both of whom prepare | who prepare |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | taglurip- | sbj just prepared | ||||
Simple Past | taglur- | sbj prepared | ||||
Discontinuous Past | taglurel- | sbj used to prepare / once/formerly prepared | ||||
Distant Past | taglureng- | sbj prepared long ago | ||||
Future | taglir- | sbj will prepare | ||||
Future in the Past | tagluvir- | sbj would prepare |
Type 2d
In verb roots of Type 2d, -ut morphs into -ump after sl to avoid misinterpretation of a certain undesirable word by English learners, and the tense markers follow 2b's pattern. A demonstration is shown below with vinjaslar (to impeach).
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | vinjaslim | vinjaslisivim | vinjaslisim | I impeach | we both impeach | we impeach |
1st (Exclusive) | vinjaslisiveum | vinjasliseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | vinjaslit | vinjaslisivit | vinjaslisit | you impeach | you both impeach | you all impeach |
2nd (Honorable) | vinjaslump | vinjaslisivut | vinjaslisut | |||
3rd | vinjaslat | vinjaslisivat | vinjaslisat | he/she/it impeaches | they both impeach | they impeach |
4th (Subject) | vinjasŕealb | vinjasŕisivealb | vinjasŕisealb | sbj impeach(es) | ||
4th (Object) | vinjasŕealbem | vinjasŕisivealbem | vinjasŕisealbem | |||
Interrogative | vinjasleak | vinjaslisiveak | vinjasliseak | what impeaches? | which two impeach? | which ones impeach? |
Interrogative (Personal) | vinjasleank | vinjaslisiveank | vinjasliseank | who impeaches? | which two people impeach? | which people impeach? |
Relative | vinjasleaj | vinjaslisiveaj | vinjasliseaj | who impeaches | both of which impeach | which impeach |
Relative (Personal) | vinjasleanj | vinjaslisiveanj | vinjasliseanj | who impeaches | both of whom impeach | who impeach |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | vinjaslurip- | sbj just impeached | ||||
Simple Past | vinjaslur- | sbj impeached | ||||
Discontinuous Past | vinjaslurel- | sbj used to impeach / once/formerly impeached | ||||
Distant Past | vinjaslureng- | sbj impeached long ago | ||||
Future | vinjaslir- | sbj will impeach | ||||
Future in the Past | vinjasluvir- | sbj would impeach |
Type 3
After verb roots ending in Cr (such as oudr-, "to become"), the l in tenses is dropped while the remainder transforms into uld for the past forms and ild for the future.
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | oudrim | oudrisivim | oudrisim | I become | we both become | we become |
1st (Exclusive) | oudrisiveum | oudriseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | oudrit | oudrisivit | oudrisit | you become | you both become | you all become |
2nd (Honorable) | oudrut | oudrisivut | oudrisut | |||
3rd | oudrat | oudrisivat | oudrisat | he/she/it becomes | they both become | they become |
4th (Subject) | oudrealb | oudrisivealb | oudrisealb | sbj become(s) | ||
4th (Object) | oudrealbem | oudrisivealbem | oudrisealbem | |||
Interrogative | oudreak | oudrisiveak | oudriseak | what becomes? | which two become? | which ones become? |
Interrogative (Personal) | oudreank | oudrisiveank | oudriseank | who becomes? | which two people become? | which people become? |
Relative | oudreaj | oudrisiveaj | oudriseaj | who becomes | both of which become | which become |
Relative (Personal) | oudreanj | oudrisiveanj | oudriseanj | who becomes | both of whom become | who become |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | oudruldip- | sbj just became | ||||
Simple Past | oudruld- | sbj became | ||||
Discontinuous Past | oudruldel- | sbj used to become / once/formerly became | ||||
Distant Past | oudruldeng- | sbj became long ago | ||||
Future | oudrild- | sbj will become | ||||
Future in the Past | oudrulddir- | sbj would become |
Type 4
The lone root of this type is the uniliteral v- (to go), whose tense stems behave like 2b and 2c. Conjugation of this verb is far more regular than its counterparts in various other languages.
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | vim | visivim | visim | I go | we both go | we go |
1st (Exclusive) | visiveum | viseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | vit | visivit | visit | you go | you both go | you all go |
2nd (Honorable) | vut | visivut | visut | |||
3rd | vat | visivat | visat | he/she/it goes | they both go | they go |
4th (Subject) | vealb | visivealb | visealb | sbj go(es) | ||
4th (Object) | vealbem | visivealbem | visealbem | |||
Interrogative | veak | visiveak | viseak | what goes? | which two go? | which ones go? |
Interrogative (Personal) | veank | visiveank | viseank | who goes? | which two people go? | which people go? |
Relative | veaj | visiveaj | viseaj | who goes | both of which go | which go |
Relative (Personal) | veanj | visiveanj | viseanj | who goes | both of whom go | who go |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | vurip- | sbj just went | ||||
Simple Past | vur- | sbj went | ||||
Discontinuous Past | vurel- | sbj used to go / once/formerly went | ||||
Distant Past | vureng- | sbj went long ago | ||||
Future | vir- | sbj will go | ||||
Future in the Past | vuvir- | sbj would go |
Type 5a
The exemplar of Type 5a is premar, "to begin/start". Here, the l in all tense suffixes morphs into m, the root's last letter, via a special form of "rendaku". 5a is the most prominent, with its verb stems ending in d, j, lm, Vm, rm, w, x, or y.
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | premim | premisivim | premisim | I begin | we both begin | we begin |
1st (Exclusive) | premisiveum | premiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | premit | premisivit | premisit | you begin | you both begin | you all begin |
2nd (Honorable) | premut | premisivut | premisut | |||
3rd | premat | premisivat | premisat | he/she/it begins | they both begin | they begin |
4th (Subject) | premealb | premisivealb | premisealb | sbj begin(s) | ||
4th (Object) | premealbem | premisivealbem | premisealbem | |||
Interrogative | premeak | premisiveak | premiseak | what begins? | which two begin? | which ones begin? |
Interrogative (Personal) | premeank | premisiveank | premiseank | who begins? | which two people begin? | which people begin? |
Relative | premeaj | premisiveaj | premiseaj | who begins | both of which begin | which begin |
Relative (Personal) | premeanj | premisiveanj | premiseanj | who begins | both of whom begin | who begin |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | premmurip- | sbj just began | ||||
Simple Past | premmur- | sbj began | ||||
Discontinuous Past | premmurel- | sbj used to begin / once/formerly began | ||||
Distant Past | premmureng- | sbj began long ago | ||||
Future | premmir- | sbj will begin | ||||
Future in the Past | premmuvir- | sbj would begin |
Type 5b
Verb stems of type 5b (such as venar, to come) end with ln, Vn, or rn; an epenthetic g is placed before the personal interrogative/relative termisons.
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | venim | venisivim | venisim | I come | we both come | we come |
1st (Exclusive) | venisiveum | veniseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | venit | venisivit | venisit | you come | you both come | you all come |
2nd (Honorable) | venut | venisivut | venisut | |||
3rd | venat | venisivat | venisat | he/she/it comes | they both come | they come |
4th (Subject) | venealb | venisivealb | venisealb | sbj come(s) | ||
4th (Object) | venealbem | venisivealbem | venisealbem | |||
Interrogative | veneak | venisiveak | veniseak | what comes? | which two come? | which ones come? |
Interrogative (Personal) | vengeank | venisiveank | veniseank | who comes? | which two people come? | which people come? |
Relative | veneaj | venisiveaj | veniseaj | who comes | both of which come | which come |
Relative (Personal) | vengeanj | venisiveanj | veniseanj | who comes | both of whom come | who come |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | vennurip- | sbj just came | ||||
Simple Past | vennur- | sbj came | ||||
Discontinuous Past | vennurel- | sbj used to come / once/formerly came | ||||
Distant Past | vennureng- | sbj came long ago | ||||
Future | vennir- | sbj will come | ||||
Future in the Past | vennuvir- | sbj would come |
Type 6a
Roots ending with gm/gn belong in Type 6a, the sentient sign- (swan) among them, and conjugate like Type 4.
Type 6b
6b features roots ending with sm/sn, and also conjugates like Type 4; here, -ut morphs into -ulb to avoid conflicts with English profanities, as well as the type's variation of -lur. The following example, giesmar (to sing), comes from Latvian.
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | giesmim | giesmisivim | giesmisim | I sing | we both sing | we sing |
1st (Exclusive) | giesmisiveum | giesmiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | giesmit | giesmisivit | giesmisit | you sing | you both sing | you all sing |
2nd (Honorable) | giesmulb | giesmisivut | giesmisut | |||
3rd | giesmat | giesmisivat | giesmisat | he/she/it sings | they both sing | they sing |
4th (Subject) | giesmealb | giesmisivealb | giesmisealb | sbj sing(s) | ||
4th (Object) | giesmealbem | giesmisivealbem | giesmisealbem | |||
Interrogative | giesmeak | giesmisiveak | giesmiseak | what sings? | which two sing? | which ones sing? |
Interrogative (Personal) | giesmeank | giesmisiveank | giesmiseank | who sings? | which two people sing? | which people sing? |
Relative | giesmeaj | giesmisiveaj | giesmiseaj | who sings | both of which sing | which sing |
Relative (Personal) | giesmeanj | giesmisiveanj | giesmiseanj | who sings | both of whom sing | who sing |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | giesmurip- | sbj just sang | ||||
Simple Past | giesmur- | sbj sang | ||||
Discontinuous Past | giesmurel- | sbj used to sing / once/formerly sang | ||||
Distant Past | giesmureng- | sbj sang long ago | ||||
Future | giesmir- | sbj will sing | ||||
Future in the Past | giesmuvir- | sbj would sing |
Type 7
Type 7 handles all roots ending in z, and follows the same tense-mutation pattern as the second; below is an example involving lanzar (to throw). (Z-final roots mutate before any adjacent ones with s; this verb assumes the resulting form of lanny-.)
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | lanzim | lannbisivim | lannbisim | I throw | we both throw | we throw |
1st (Exclusive) | lannbisiveum | lannbiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | lanzit | lannbisivit | lannbisit | you throw | you both throw | you all throw |
2nd (Honorable) | lanzut | lannbisivut | lannbisut | |||
3rd | lanzat | lannbisivat | lannbisat | he/she/it throws | they both throw | they throw |
4th (Subject) | lanzealb | lannbisivealb | lannbisealb | sbj throw(s) | ||
4th (Object) | lanzealbem | lannbisivealbem | lannbisealbem | |||
Interrogative | lanzeak | lannbisiveak | lannbiseak | what throws? | which two throw? | which ones throw? |
Interrogative (Personal) | lanzeank | lannbisiveank | lannbiseank | who throws? | which two people throw? | which people throw? |
Relative | lanzeaj | lannbisiveaj | lannbiseaj | who throws | both of which throw | which throw |
Relative (Personal) | lanzeanj | lannbisiveanj | lannbiseanj | who throws | both of whom throw | who throw |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | lanzzurip- | sbj just threw | ||||
Simple Past | lanzzur- | sbj threw | ||||
Discontinuous Past | lanzzurel- | sbj used to throw / once/formerly threw | ||||
Distant Past | lanzzureng- | sbj threw long ago | ||||
Future | lanzzir- | sbj will throw | ||||
Future in the Past | lanzzuvir- | sbj would throw |
The root of addezar (to tell/say to someone) mutates into addeit- before morphemes with s.
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | addezim | addeitisivim | addeitisim | I tell someone | we both tell someone | we tell someone |
1st (Exclusive) | addeitisiveum | addeitiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | addezit | addeitisivit | addeitisit | you tell someone | you both tell someone | you all tell someone |
2nd (Honorable) | addezut | addeitisivut | addeitisut | |||
3rd | addezat | addeitisivat | addeitisat | he/she/it tells someone | they both tell someone | they tell someone |
4th (Subject) | addezealb | addeitisivealb | addeitisealb | sbj tell(s) someone | ||
4th (Object) | addezealbem | addeitisivealbem | addeitisealbem | |||
Interrogative | addezeak | addeitisiveak | addeitiseak | what tells someone? | which two tell someone? | which ones tell someone? |
Interrogative (Personal) | addezeank | addeitisiveank | addeitiseank | who tells someone? | which two people tell someone? | which people tell someone? |
Relative | addezeaj | addeitisiveaj | addeitiseaj | who tells someone | both of which tell someone | which tell someone |
Relative (Personal) | addezeanj | addeitisiveanj | addeitiseanj | who tells someone | both of whom tell someone | who tell someone |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | addezzurip- | sbj just told someone | ||||
Simple Past | addezzur- | sbj told someone | ||||
Discontinuous Past | addezzurel- | sbj used to told someone / once/formerly told someone | ||||
Distant Past | addezzureng- | sbj told someone long ago | ||||
Future | addezzir- | sbj will tell someone | ||||
Future in the Past | addezzuvir- | sbj would tell someone |
Type 8
Type 8 handles roots ending in ch and t; it allows a marker to mutate for the same reasons as 2c (-it → -ot). Below is a demonstration involving poartar (to carry) and aistar (to make/produce).
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | poartim | poartisivim | poartisim | I carry | we both carry | we carry |
1st (Exclusive) | poartisiveum | poartiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | poartot | poartisivit | poartisit | you carry | you both carry | you all carry |
2nd (Honorable) | poartut | poartisivut | poartisut | |||
3rd | poartat | poartisivat | poartisat | he/she/it carries | they both carry | they carry |
4th (Subject) | poartealb | poartisivealb | poartisealb | sbj carry/carries | ||
4th (Object) | poartealbem | poartisivealbem | poartisealbem | |||
Interrogative | poarteak | poartisiveak | poartiseak | what carries? | which two carry? | which ones carry? |
Interrogative (Personal) | poarteank | poartisiveank | poartiseank | who carries? | which two people carry? | which people carry? |
Relative | poarteaj | poartisiveaj | poartiseaj | who carries | both of which carry | which carry |
Relative (Personal) | poarteanj | poartisiveanj | poartiseanj | who carries | both of whom carry | who carry |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | poartturip- | sbj just carried | ||||
Simple Past | poarttur- | sbj carried | ||||
Discontinuous Past | poartturel- | sbj used to carry / once/formerly carried | ||||
Distant Past | poarttureng- | sbj carried long ago | ||||
Future | poarttir- | sbj will carry | ||||
Future in the Past | poarttuvir- | sbj would carry |
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | aistim | aistisivim | aistisim | I make | we both make | we make |
1st (Exclusive) | aistisiveum | aistiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | aistot | aistisivit | aistisit | you make | you both make | you all make |
2nd (Honorable) | aistut | aistisivut | aistisut | |||
3rd | aistat | aistisivat | aistisat | he/she/it makes | they both make | they make |
4th (Subject) | aistealb | aistisivealb | aistisealb | sbj make(s) | ||
4th (Object) | aistealbem | aistisivealbem | aistisealbem | |||
Interrogative | aisteak | aistisiveak | aistiseak | what makes? | which two make? | which ones make? |
Interrogative (Personal) | aisteank | aistisiveank | aistiseank | who makes? | which two people make? | which people make? |
Relative | aisteaj | aistisiveaj | aistiseaj | who makes | both of which make | which make |
Relative (Personal) | aisteanj | aistisiveanj | aistiseanj | who makes | both of whom make | who make |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | aistturip- | sbj just made | ||||
Simple Past | aisttur- | sbj made | ||||
Discontinuous Past | aistturel- | sbj used to make / once/formerly made | ||||
Distant Past | aisttureng- | sbj made long ago | ||||
Future | aisttir- | sbj will make | ||||
Future in the Past | aisttuvir- | sbj would make |
Another example in Type 8 is zurechar (to incur).
Tovasala | English | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Number | |||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||||
1st (Inclusive) | zurechim | zurechisivim | zurechisim | I incur | we both incur | we incur |
1st (Exclusive) | zurechisiveum | zurechiseum | ||||
2nd (Familiar) | zurechot | zurechisivit | zurechisit | you incur | you both incur | you all incur |
2nd (Honorable) | zurechut | zurechisivut | zurechisut | |||
3rd | zurechat | zurechisivat | zurechisat | he/she/it incurs | they both incur | they incur |
4th (Subject) | zurechealb | zurechisivealb | zurechisealb | sbj incur(s) | ||
4th (Object) | zurechealbem | zurechisivealbem | zurechisealbem | |||
Interrogative | zurecheak | zurechisiveak | zurechiseak | what incurs? | which two incur? | which ones incur? |
Interrogative (Personal) | zurecheank | zurechisiveank | zurechiseank | who incurs? | which two people incur? | which people incur? |
Relative | zurecheaj | zurechisiveaj | zurechiseaj | who incurs | both of which incur | which incur |
Relative (Personal) | zurecheanj | zurechisiveanj | zurechiseanj | who incurs | both of whom incur | who incur |
Tovasala | English | |||||
Tense | Stem | |||||
Recent Past | zurechhurip- | sbj just incurred | ||||
Simple Past | zurechhur- | sbj incurred | ||||
Discontinuous Past | zurechhurel- | sbj used to incur / once/formerly incurred | ||||
Distant Past | zurechhureng- | sbj incurred long ago | ||||
Future | zurechhir- | sbj will incur | ||||
Future in the Past | zurechhuvir- | sbj would incur |
Conjugation overview
The names of Tovasala's aspect and mood classes are named after the order in which the affixes are placed, and differ from standard terms used in other resources and publications.
Aspect/Mood | Tense | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | Recent Past | Simple Past | Discontinuous Past | Distant Past | Future | Future in the Past | |
Simple | R- does |
R-lurip just did |
R-lur did |
R-lurel used to do |
R-lureng did long ago |
R-lir will do |
R-luvir would do |
Progressive | R-ant is doing |
R-antturip was just doing |
R-anttur was doing |
R-antturel used to be doing |
R-anttureng was doing long ago |
R-anttir will be doing |
R-anttuvir would be doing |
Continuative | R-asant is still doing |
R-asantturip was still recently doing |
R-asanttur was still doing |
R-asantturel used to be still doing |
R-asanttureng was still doing long ago |
R-asanttir will be still doing |
R-asanttuvir would be still doing |
Progressive Perfect | R-anv has been doing |
R-anvlurip has/had just been doing |
R-anvlur had been doing |
R-anvlurel used to have been doing |
R-anvlureng had been doing long ago |
R-anvlir will have been doing |
R-anvluvir would have been doing |
Progressive Perfect | R-asanv has been still doing |
R-asanvlurip has/had still recently been doing |
R-asanvlur had been still doing |
R-asanvlurel used to have been still doing |
R-asanvlureng had been still doing long ago |
R-asanvlir will have been still doing |
R-asanvluvir would have been still doing |
Progressive Prospective | R-antaij is about to be doing |
R-antaijjurip was just about to be doing |
R-antaijjur was about to be doing |
R-antaijjurel used to be about to be doing |
R-antaijjureng was about to be doing long ago |
R-antaijjir will be about to be doing |
R-antaijjuvir would be about to be doing |
Progressive Conditional/Subjunctive | R-antaik ought to be doing; ...that sbj be doing |
R-antaiklurip recently ought to be doing |
R-antaiklur ought to be doing some time ago |
R-antaiklurel should have used to be doing |
R-antaiklureng ought to be doing long ago |
R-antaiklir shall be doing |
R-antaikluvir should be doing |
Continuative Conditional/Subjunctive | R-asantaik ought to be still doing; ...that sbj be still doing |
R-asantaiklurip recently ought to be still doing |
R-asantaiklur ought to be still doing some time ago |
R-asantaiklurel should have used to be still doing |
R-asantaiklureng ought to be still doing long ago |
R-asantaiklir shall be still doing |
R-asantaikluvir should be still doing |
Perfect | R-av has done |
R-avlurip has/had just done |
R-avlur had done |
R-avlurel used to have done |
R-avlureng had done long ago |
R-avlir will have done |
R-avluvir would have done |
Perfect Prospective | R-avaij is about to have done |
R-avaijjurip is just about to have done |
R-avaijjur was about to have done |
R-avaijjurel used to be about to have done |
R-avaijjureng was about to have done long ago |
R-avaijjir will be about to have done |
R-avaijjuvir would be about to have done |
Perfect Conditional/Subjunctive | R-avaik ought to have done; ...that sbj have done |
R-avaiklurip just ought to have done |
R-avaiklur ought to have done some time ago |
R-avaiklurel should have used to have done |
R-avaiklureng ought to have done long ago |
R-avaiklir shall have done |
R-avaikluvir should have done |
Passive Simple | R-aid is done |
R-aiddurip is just done |
R-aiddur was/were done |
R-aiddurel used to be done |
R-aiddureng was/were done long ago |
R-aiddir will be done |
R-aidduvir would be done |
Passive Progressive | R-aidant is being done |
R-aidantturip is just being done |
R-aidanttur was/were being done |
R-aidantturel used to be being done |
R-aidanttureng was/were being done long ago |
R-aidanttir will be being done |
R-aidanttuvir would be being done |
Passive Continuative | R-aidasant is still being done |
R-aidasantturip is just still being done |
R-aidasanttur was/were still being done |
R-aidasantturel used to be still being done |
R-aidasanttureng was/were still being done long ago |
R-aidasanttir will be still being done |
R-aidasanttuvir would be still being done |
Passive Perfect | R-aidav has been done |
R-aidavlurip had just been done |
R-aidavlur had been done |
R-aidavlurel used to have been done |
R-aidavlureng had been done long ago |
R-aidavlir will have been done |
R-aidavluvir would have been done |
Passive Progressive | R-aidaij is about to be done |
R-aidaijjurip was just about to be done |
R-aidaijjur was/were about to be done |
R-aidaijjurel used to be about to be done |
R-aidaijjureng was/were about to be done long ago |
R-aidaijjir will be about to be done |
R-aidaijjuvir would be about to be done |
Passive Conditional/Subjunctive | R-aidaik ought to be done; ...that sbj be done |
R-aidaiklurip recently ought to be done |
R-aidaiklur ought to be done some time ago |
R-aidaiklurel should have used to be done |
R-aidaiklureng ought to be done long ago |
R-aidaiklir shall be done |
R-aidaikluvir should be done |
Prospective Simple | R-aij is about to do |
R-aijjurip was just about to do |
R-aijjur was about to do |
R-aijjurel used to be about to do |
R-aijjureng was about to do long ago |
R-aijjir will be about to do |
R-aijuvir would be about to do |
Prospective Perfect | R-aijav has been about to do |
R-aijavlurip has just been about to do |
R-aijavlur had been about to do |
R-aijavlurel used to have been about to do |
R-aijavlureng had been about to do long ago |
R-aijavlir will have been about to do |
R-aijavluvir would have been about to do |
Prospective Conditional/Subjunctive | R-aijaik ought to be about to do; ...that sbj be about to do |
R-aijaiklurip recently ought to be about to do |
R-aijaiklur ought to be about to do some time ago |
R-aijaiklurel should have used to be about to do |
R-aijaiklureng ought to be about to do long ago |
R-aijaiklir shall be about to do |
R-aijaikluvir should be about to do |
Conditional/Subjunctive | R-aik ought to do; could/would/should do; ...that sbj do |
R-aiklurip recently ought to do |
R-aiklur ought to do some time ago |
R-aiklurel should have used to do |
R-aiklureng ought to do long ago |
R-aiklir shall do |
R-aikluvir should do |
Imperative/Cohortative | R-ait! do! |
— | — | — | — | R-lirait! let's do! |
— |
Tovasala also makes use of the perfect participle, -avaisom: Troaƒfuindavaisomu, tüvvlurealbo l'oavuime. (Having finished his work, he left the office).
Conjugation examples
1: sujar
Equivalents of this verb are extremely irregular in various natural languages. Its conjugation in Tovasala is an exception, along with the Esperanto equivalent esti and Ido esar.
It is ungrammatical in English to precede be's past participle, been, with any other form of that verb. The same applies in Tovasala, where sujar lacks passive conjugation. The participle is retained in the perfect form, sujavat (have/has been).
Sujar is only used to introduce subjects in encyclopedia/news articles and biographies.
Tovasala | English | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | |||||
sujim | sujisivim | sujisim | I am | we both are | we are |
sujisiveum | sujiseum | ||||
sujit | sujisivit | sujisit | you are | you both are | you all are |
sujut | sujisivut | sujisut | |||
sujat | sujisivat | sujisat | he/she/it is | they both are | they are |
sujealb | sujisivealb | sujisealb | sbj is/are | ||
sujealbem | sujisivealbem | sujisealbem | |||
Negative Present | |||||
naŕsujim | naŕsujisivim | naŕsujisim | I am not | we both are not | we are not |
naŕsujisiveum | naŕsujiseum | ||||
naŕsujit | naŕsujisivit | naŕsujisit | you are not | you both are not | you all are not |
naŕsujut | naŕsujisivut | naŕsujisut | |||
naŕsujat | naŕsujisivat | naŕsujisat | he/she/it is not | they both are not | they are not |
naŕsujealb | naŕsujisivealb | naŕsujisealb | sbj is/are not | ||
naŕsujealbem | naŕsujisivealbem | naŕsujisealbem | |||
Recent Past | |||||
sujjuripim | sujjuripisivim | sujjuripisim | I was recently | we both recently were | we recently were |
sujjuripisiveum | sujjuripiseum | ||||
sujjuripit | sujjuripisivit | sujjuripisit | you were recently | you both recently were | you were all recently |
sujjuriput | sujjuripisivut | sujjuripisut | |||
sujjuripat | sujjuripisivat | sujjuripisat | he/she/it was recently | they were both recently | they were recently |
sujjuripealb | sujjuripisivealb | sujjuripisealb | sbj was/were recently | ||
sujjuripealbem | sujjuripisivealbem | sujjuripisealbem | |||
Simple Past | |||||
sujjurim | sujjurisivim | sujjurisim | I was | we both were | we were |
sujjurisiveum | sujjuriseum | ||||
sujjurit | sujjurisivit | sujjurisit | you were | you both were | you all were |
sujjurut | sujjurisivut | sujjurisut | |||
sujjurat | sujjurisivat | sujjurisat | he/she/it was | they both were | they were |
sujjurealb | sujjurisivealb | sujjurisealb | sbj was/were | ||
sujjurealbem | sujjurisivealbem | sujjurisealbem | |||
Discontinuous Past | |||||
sujjurelim | sujjurelisivim | sujjurelisim | I was once | we both once were | we were once |
sujjurelisiveum | sujjureliseum | ||||
sujjurelit | sujjurelisivit | sujjurelisit | you were once | you both once were | you all were once |
sujjurelut | sujjurelisivut | sujjurelisut | |||
sujjurelat | sujjurelisivat | sujjurelisat | he/she/it was once | they both once were | they were once |
sujjurelealb | sujjurelisivealb | sujjurelisealb | sbj was/were once | ||
sujjurelealbem | sujjurelisivealbem | sujjurelisealbem | |||
Future | |||||
sujjirim | sujjirisivim | sujjirisim | I will be | we will both be | we will be |
sujjirisiveum | sujjiriseum | ||||
sujjirit | sujjirisivit | sujjirisit | you will be | you will both be | you will all be |
sujjirut | sujjirisivut | sujjirisut | |||
sujjirat | sujjirisivat | sujjirisat | he/she/it will be | they will both be | they will be |
sujjirealb | sujjirisivealb | sujjirisealb | sbj will be | ||
sujjirealbem | sujjirisivealbem | sujjirisealbem | |||
Future in the Past | |||||
sujjuvirim | sujjuvirisivim | sujjuvirisim | I would be | we would both be | we would be |
sujjuvirisiveum | sujjuviriseum | ||||
sujjuvirit | sujjuvirisivit | sujjuvirisit | you would be | you would both be | you all would be |
sujjuvirut | sujjuvirisivut | sujjuvirisut | |||
sujjuvirat | sujjuvirisivat | sujjuvirisat | he/she/it would be | they would both be | they would be |
sujjuvirealb | sujjuvirisivealb | sujjuvirisealb | sbj would be | ||
sujjuvirealbem | sujjuvirisivealbem | sujjuvirisealbem | |||
Conditional/Subjunctive | |||||
sujaikim | sujisivaikim | sujisaikim | ...that sbj be; sbj ought to/could/would/should be | ||
sujisivaikeum | sujisaikeum | ||||
sujaikit | sujisivaikit | sujisaikit | |||
sujaikut | sujisivaikut | sujisaikut | |||
sujaik | sujisivaik | sujisaik | |||
sujaikealb | sujisivaikealb | sujisaikealb | |||
sujaikealbem | sujisivaikealbem | sujisaikealbem | |||
Imperative | |||||
sujait! | be! | ||||
Cohortative | |||||
sujjirait! | let's (= let us) be! | ||||
Present Participle (Progressive Active) | |||||
sujant | be being | ||||
Continuative Active | |||||
sujasant | still be being | ||||
Past Participle | |||||
—[6] | been | ||||
Prospective | |||||
sujaijim | sujaijisivim | sujaijisim | I am about to be | we are both about to be | we are about to be |
sujaijisiveum | sujaijiseum | ||||
sujaijit | sujaijisivit | sujaijisit | you are about to be | you are both about to be | you all are about to be |
sujaijut | sujaijisivut | sujaijisut | |||
sujaijat | sujaijisivat | sujaijisat | he/she/it is about to be | they are both about to be | they are about to be |
sujaijealb | sujaijisivealb | sujaijisealb | sbj is/are about to be | ||
sujaijealbem | sujaijisivealbem | sujaijisealbem | |||
Passive Infinitive | |||||
—[6] | |||||
Progressive Passive Infinitive | |||||
—[7] | |||||
Past Participle Infinitive (Perfect Active) | |||||
sujavar | to have been | ||||
Perfect Passive Infinitive | |||||
—[8] | |||||
Verbal Noun | |||||
sujé | (the) being/existing |
2: mankar
This root conjugates in both the active and passive voices. The French counterpart, manger, possesses regular conjugation (albeit with a few spelling adjustments where applicable). The English past tense form (ate) and past participle (eaten) deviate from the regular eat(s)/eating.
Tovasala | English | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | |||||
mankim | mankisivim | mankisim | I eat | we both eat | we eat |
mankisiveum | mankiseum | ||||
mankit | mankisivit | mankisit | you eat | you both eat | you all eat |
mankut | mankisivut | mankisut | |||
mankat | mankisivat | mankisat | he/she/it eats | they both eat | they eat |
mankealb | mankisivealb | mankisealb | sbj eat(s) | ||
mankealbem | mankisivealbem | mankisealbem | |||
Negative Present | |||||
naŕmankim | naŕmankisivim | naŕmankisim | I do not eat | we both do not eat | we do not eat |
naŕmankisiveum | naŕmankiseum | ||||
naŕmankit | naŕmankisivit | naŕmankisit | you do not eat | you both do not eat | you all do not eat |
naŕmankut | naŕmankisivut | naŕmankisut | |||
naŕmankat | naŕmankisivat | naŕmankisat | he/she/it does not eat | they both do not eat | they do not eat |
naŕmankealb | naŕmankisivealb | naŕmankisealb | sbj do(es) not eat | ||
naŕmankealbem | naŕmankisivealbem | naŕmankisealbem | |||
Recent Past | |||||
mankluripim | mankluripisivim | mankluripisim | I recently ate | we both recently ate | we recently ate |
mankluripisiveum | mankluripiseum | ||||
mankluripit | mankluripisivit | mankluripisit | you recently ate | you both recently ate | you all recently ate |
mankluriput | mankluripisivut | mankluripisut | |||
mankluripat | mankluripisivat | mankluripisat | he/she/it recently ate | they both recently ate | they recently ate |
mankluripealb | mankluripisivealb | mankluripisealb | sbj recently ate | ||
mankluripealbem | mankluripisivealbem | mankluripisealbem | |||
Simple Past | |||||
manklurim | manklurisivim | manklurisim | I ate | we both ate | we ate |
manklurisiveum | mankluriseum | ||||
manklurit | manklurisivit | manklurisit | you ate | you both ate | you all ate |
manklurut | manklurisivut | manklurisut | |||
manklurat | manklurisivat | manklurisat | he/she/it ate | they both ate | they ate |
manklurealb | manklurisivealb | manklurisealb | sbj was/were | ||
manklurealbem | manklurisivealbem | manklurisealbem | |||
Discontinuous Past | |||||
manklurelim | manklurelisivim | manklurelisim | I once ate | we both once ate | we once ate |
manklurelisiveum | manklureliseum | ||||
manklurelit | manklurelisivit | manklurelisit | you once ate | you both once ate | you all once ate |
manklurelut | manklurelisivut | manklurelisut | |||
manklurelat | manklurelisivat | manklurelisat | he/she/it once ate | they both once ate | they once ate |
manklurelealb | manklurelisivealb | manklurelisealb | sbj once ate | ||
manklurelealbem | manklurelisivealbem | manklurelisealbem | |||
Future | |||||
manklirim | manklirisivim | manklirisim | I will eat | we will both eat | we will eat |
manklirisiveum | mankliriseum | ||||
manklirit | manklirisivit | manklirisit | you will eat | you will both eat | you will all eat |
manklirut | manklirisivut | manklirisut | |||
manklirat | manklirisivat | manklirisat | he/she/it will eat | they will both eat | they will eat |
manklirealb | manklirisivealb | manklirisealb | sbj will eat | ||
manklirealbem | manklirisivealbem | manklirisealbem | |||
Future in the Past | |||||
mankluvirim | mankluvirisivim | mankluvirisim | I would eat | we would both eat | we would eat |
mankluvirisiveum | mankluviriseum | ||||
mankluvirit | mankluvirisivit | mankluvirisit | you would eat | you would both eat | you all would eat |
mankluvirut | mankluvirisivut | mankluvirisut | |||
mankluvirat | mankluvirisivat | mankluvirisat | he/she/it would eat | they would both eat | they would eat |
mankluvirealb | mankluvirisivealb | mankluvirisealb | sbj would eat | ||
mankluvirealbem | mankluvirisivealbem | mankluvirisealbem | |||
Conditional/Subjunctive | |||||
mankaikim | mankisivaikim | mankisaikim | ...that sbj eat; sbj ought to/could/would/should eat | ||
mankisivaikeum | mankisaikeum | ||||
mankaikit | mankisivaikit | mankisaikit | |||
mankaikut | mankisivaikut | mankisaikut | |||
mankaik | mankisivaik | mankisaik | |||
mankaikealb | mankisivaikealb | mankisaikealb | |||
mankaikealbem | mankisivaikealbem | mankisaikealbem | |||
Imperative | |||||
mankait! | eat! | ||||
Cohortative | |||||
manklirait! | let's (= let us) eat! | ||||
Present Participle (Progressive Active) | |||||
mankant | be eating | ||||
Continuative Active | |||||
mankasant | still be eating | ||||
Past Participle | |||||
mankaid | eaten | ||||
Prospective | |||||
mankaijim | mankaijisivim | mankaijisim | I am about to eat | we are both about to eat | we are about to eat |
mankaijisiveum | mankaijiseum | ||||
mankaijit | mankaijisivit | mankaijisit | you are about to eat | you are both about to eat | you all are about to eat |
mankaijut | mankaijisivut | mankaijisut | |||
mankaijat | mankaijisivat | mankaijisat | he/she/it is about to eat | they are both about to eat | they are about to eat |
mankaijealb | mankaijisivealb | mankaijisealb | sbj is/are about to eat | ||
mankaijealbem | mankaijisivealbem | mankaijisealbem | |||
Passive Infinitive | |||||
mankaidar | to be eaten | ||||
Progressive Passive Infinitive | |||||
mankaidantar | to be being eaten | ||||
Past Participle Infinitive (Perfect Active) | |||||
mankavar | to have eaten | ||||
Perfect Passive Infinitive | |||||
mankaidavar | to have been eaten | ||||
Verbal Noun | |||||
manké | (the) eating |
3: foartar
Adjectives can also be used to form verbs (meaning "to be adj"), but do not conjugate in the passive voice (as explained in Example 1). The noun form describes something that possesses the attribute in question.
Tovasala | English | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | |||||
foartim | foartisivim | foartisim | I am strong | we are both strong | we are strong |
foartisiveum | foartiseum | ||||
foartot | foartisivit | foartisit | you are strong | you are both strong | you all are strong |
foartut | foartisivut | foartisut | |||
foartat | foartisivat | foartisat | he/she/it is strong | they are both strong | they are strong |
foartealb | foartisivealb | foartisealb | sbj is/are strong | ||
foartealbem | foartisivealbem | foartisealbem | |||
Negative Present | |||||
naŕfoartim | naŕfoartisivim | naŕfoartisim | I am not strong | we two are not strong | we are not strong |
naŕfoartisiveum | naŕfoartiseum | ||||
naŕfoartot | naŕfoartisivit | naŕfoartisit | you are not strong | you two are not strong | you all are not strong |
naŕfoartut | naŕfoartisivut | naŕfoartisut | |||
naŕfoartat | naŕfoartisivat | naŕfoartisat | he/she/it is not strong | the two are not strong | they are not strong |
naŕfoartealb | naŕfoartisivealb | naŕfoartisealb | sbj is/are not strong | ||
naŕfoartealbem | naŕfoartisivealbem | naŕfoartisealbem | |||
Recent Past | |||||
foartturipim | foartturipisivim | foartturipisim | I was recently strong | we were both recently strong | we were recently strong |
foartturipisiveum | foartturipiseum | ||||
foartturipit | foartturipisivit | foartturipisit | you were recently strong | you were both recently strong | you were all recently strong |
foartturiput | foartturipisivut | foartturipisut | |||
foartturipat | foartturipisivat | foartturipisat | he/she/it was recently strong | they were both recently strong | they were recently strong |
foartturipealb | foartturipisivealb | foartturipisealb | sbj was/were recently strong | ||
foartturipealbem | foartturipisivealbem | foartturipisealbem | |||
Simple Past | |||||
foartturim | foartturisivim | foartturisim | I was strong | we were both strong | we were strong |
foartturisiveum | foartturiseum | ||||
foartturit | foartturisivit | foartturisit | you were strong | you were both strong | you were all strong |
foartturut | foartturisivut | foartturisut | |||
foartturat | foartturisivat | foartturisat | he/she/it was strong | they were both strong | they were strong |
foartturealb | foartturisivealb | foartturisealb | sbj was/were strong | ||
foartturealbem | foartturisivealbem | foartturisealbem | |||
Discontinuous Past | |||||
foartturelim | foartturelisivim | foartturelisim | I was once strong | we were both once strong | we were once strong |
foartturelisiveum | foarttureliseum | ||||
foartturelit | foartturelisivit | foartturelisit | you were once strong | you two were once strong | you were all once strong |
foartturelut | foartturelisivut | foartturelisut | |||
foartturelat | foartturelisivat | foartturelisat | he/she/it was once strong | they were both once strong | they were once strong |
foartturelealb | foartturelisivealb | foartturelisealb | sbj was/were once strong | ||
foartturelealbem | foartturelisivealbem | foartturelisealbem | |||
Future | |||||
foarttirim | foarttirisivim | foarttirisim | I will be strong | we will both be strong | we will be strong |
foarttirisiveum | foarttiriseum | ||||
foarttirit | foarttirisivit | foarttirisit | you will be strong | you will both be strong | you will all be strong |
foarttirut | foarttirisivut | foarttirisut | |||
foarttirat | foarttirisivat | foarttirisat | he/she/it will be strong | they will both be strong | they will be strong |
foarttirealb | foarttirisivealb | foarttirisealb | sbj will be strong | ||
foarttirealbem | foarttirisivealbem | foarttirisealbem | |||
Future in the Past | |||||
foarttuvirim | foarttuvirisivim | foarttuvirisim | I would be strong | we would both be strong | we would be strong |
foarttuvirisiveum | foarttuviriseum | ||||
foarttuvirit | foarttuvirisivit | foarttuvirisit | you would be strong | you would both be strong | you all would be strong |
foarttuvirut | foarttuvirisivut | foarttuvirisut | |||
foarttuvirat | foarttuvirisivat | foarttuvirisat | he/she/it would be strong | they would both be strong | they would be strong |
foarttuvirealb | foarttuvirisivealb | foarttuvirisealb | sbj would be strong | ||
foarttuvirealbem | foarttuvirisivealbem | foarttuvirisealbem | |||
Conditional/Subjunctive | |||||
foartaikim | foartisivaikim | foartisaikim | ...that sbj be strong; sbj ought to/could/would/should be strong | ||
foartisivaikeum | foartisaikeum | ||||
foartaikit | foartisivaikit | foartisaikit | |||
foartaikut | foartisivaikut | foartisaikut | |||
foartaik | foartisivaik | foartisaik | |||
foartaikealb | foartisivaikealb | foartisaikealb | |||
foartaikealbem | foartisivaikealbem | foartisaikealbem | |||
Imperative | |||||
foartait! | be strong! | ||||
Cohortative | |||||
foarttirait! | let's (= let us) be strong! | ||||
Present Participle (Progressive Active) | |||||
foartant | be being strong | ||||
Continuative Active | |||||
foartasant | still being strong | ||||
Past Participle | |||||
— | been strong | ||||
Prospective | |||||
foartaijim | foartaijisivim | foartaijisim | I am about to be strong | we are both about to be strong | we are about to be strong |
foartaijisiveum | foartaijiseum | ||||
foartaijit | foartaijisivit | foartaijisit | you are about to be strong | you are both about to be strong | you all are about to be strong |
foartaijut | foartaijisivut | foartaijisut | |||
foartaijat | foartaijisivat | foartaijisat | he/she/it is about to be strong | they are both about to be strong | they are about to be strong |
foartaijealb | foartaijisivealb | foartaijisealb | sbj is/are about to be strong | ||
foartaijealbem | foartaijisivealbem | foartaijisealbem | |||
Passive Infinitive | |||||
— | |||||
Progressive Passive Infinitive | |||||
— | |||||
Past Participle Infinitive (Perfect Active) | |||||
foartavar | to have been strong | ||||
Perfect Passive Infinitive | |||||
— | |||||
Adjectival Noun | |||||
foarté | a strong thing; a fort |
4: intar
Verbs can also be formed from adpositions; again, these forms do not conjugate in the passive voice. In the Kosinde dialect, the recent/simple/discontinuous past and future markers respectively become nuper-, per-, pler-, and fer- before this vowel-initial root.
Tovasala | English | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | |||||
intim | intisivim | intisim | I am in | we are both in | we are in |
intisiveum | intiseum | ||||
intot | intisivit | intisit | you are in | you are both in | you are all in |
intut | intisivut | intisut | |||
intat | intisivat | intisat | he/she/it is in | they are both in | they are in |
intealb | intisivealb | intisealb | sbj is/are in | ||
intealbem | intisivealbem | intisealbem | |||
Negative Present | |||||
nalintim | nalintisivim | nalintisim | I am not in | we two are not in | we are not in |
nalintisiveum | nalintiseum | ||||
nalintot | nalintisivit | nalintisit | you are not in | you two are not in | you all are not in |
nalintut | nalintisivut | nalintisut | |||
nalintat | nalintisivat | nalintisat | he/she/it is not in | the two are not in | they are not in |
nalintealb | nalintisivealb | nalintisealb | sbj is/are not in | ||
nalintealbem | nalintisivealbem | nalintisealbem | |||
Recent Past | |||||
intturipim | intturipisivim | intturipisim | I was recently in | we were both recently in | we were recently in |
intturipisiveum | intturipiseum | ||||
intturipit | intturipisivit | intturipisit | you were recently in | you two were recently in | you were all recently in |
intturiput | intturipisivut | intturipisut | |||
intturipat | intturipisivat | intturipisat | he/she/it was recently in | they were both recently in | they were recently in |
intturipealb | intturipisivealb | intturipisealb | sbj was/were recently in | ||
intturipealbem | intturipisivealbem | intturipisealbem | |||
Simple Past | |||||
intturim | intturisivim | intturisim | I was in | we were both in | we were in |
intturisiveum | intturiseum | ||||
intturit | intturisivit | intturisit | you were in | you were both in | you were all in |
intturut | intturisivut | intturisut | |||
intturat | intturisivat | intturisat | he/she/it was in | they were both in | they were in |
intturealb | intturisivealb | intturisealb | sbj was/were in | ||
intturealbem | intturisivealbem | intturisealbem | |||
Discontinuous Past | |||||
intturelim | intturelisivim | intturelisim | I was once in | we were both once in | we were once in |
intturelisiveum | inttureliseum | ||||
intturelit | intturelisivit | intturelisit | you were once in | you two were once in | you were all once in |
intturelut | intturelisivut | intturelisut | |||
intturelat | intturelisivat | intturelisat | he/she/it was once in | they were both once in | they were once in |
intturelealb | intturelisivealb | intturelisealb | sbj was/were once in | ||
intturelealbem | intturelisivealbem | intturelisealbem | |||
Future | |||||
inttirim | inttirisivim | inttirisim | I will be in | we will both be in | we will be in |
inttirisiveum | inttiriseum | ||||
inttirit | inttirisivit | inttirisit | you will be in | you will both be in | you will all be in |
inttirut | inttirisivut | inttirisut | |||
inttirat | inttirisivat | inttirisat | he/she/it will be in | they will both be in | they will be in |
inttirealb | inttirisivealb | inttirisealb | sbj will be in | ||
inttirealbem | inttirisivealbem | inttirisealbem | |||
Future in the Past | |||||
inttuvirim | inttuvirisivim | inttuvirisim | I would be in | we would both be in | we would be in |
inttuvirisiveum | inttuviriseum | ||||
inttuvirit | inttuvirisivit | inttuvirisit | you would be in | you would both be in | you all would be in |
inttuvirut | inttuvirisivut | inttuvirisut | |||
inttuvirat | inttuvirisivat | inttuvirisat | he/she/it would be in | they would both be in | they would be in |
inttuvirealb | inttuvirisivealb | inttuvirisealb | sbj would be in | ||
inttuvirealbem | inttuvirisivealbem | inttuvirisealbem | |||
Conditional/Subjunctive | |||||
intaikim | intisivaikim | intisaikim | ...that sbj be in; sbj ought to/could/would/should be in | ||
intisivaikeum | intisaikeum | ||||
intaikit | intisivaikit | intisaikit | |||
intaikut | intisivaikut | intisaikut | |||
intaik | intisivaik | intisaik | |||
intaikealb | intisivaikealb | intisaikealb | |||
intaikealbem | intisivaikealbem | intisaikealbem | |||
Imperative | |||||
intait! | be in! | ||||
Cohortative | |||||
inttirait! | let's (= let us) be in! | ||||
Present Participle (Progressive Active) | |||||
intant | be being in | ||||
Continuative Active | |||||
intasant | still being in | ||||
Past Participle | |||||
— | been in | ||||
Prospective | |||||
intaijim | intaijisivim | intaijisim | I am about to be in | we are both about to be in | we are about to be in |
intaijisiveum | intaijiseum | ||||
intaijit | intaijisivit | intaijisit | you are about to be in | you are both about to be in | you all are about to be in |
intaijut | intaijisivut | intaijisut | |||
intaijat | intaijisivat | intaijisat | he/she/it is about to be in | they are both about to be in | they are about to be in |
intaijealb | intaijisivealb | intaijisealb | sbj is/are about to be in | ||
intaijealbem | intaijisivealbem | intaijisealbem | |||
Passive Infinitive | |||||
— | |||||
Progressive Passive Infinitive | |||||
— | |||||
Past Participle Infinitive (Perfect Active) | |||||
intavar | to have been in | ||||
Perfect Passive Infinitive | |||||
— | |||||
Adpositional Noun | |||||
inté | something that is indoors |
5: skribar
This is based on the rundown found in a late 19th-century book detailing the grammar of Manchu, an almost-extinct language of China.[9]
Category | Form | Meaning | |
---|---|---|---|
Manchu | Tovasala | ||
Imperative | ara | skribait! | write! |
Present Tense | arambi | skribim | I write |
Infinitive | arame | skribar | to write |
Preterite | araha | skriblurim | I wrote |
Future | arara | skriblirim | I shall write |
Conditional | araci | skribaik-mé | should I write |
Subjunctive Present | araki | skribaik-lumo | may [that] he write |
Past Gerund | arafi | skribavaisomu | having written |
Imperfect | arambihe | skribantturim | I was writing |
Indefinite Past | arahabi | skribavim | I have written |
Pluperfect | arahabihe | skribavlurim | I had written |
Past Conditional | arahabici | sif skribavlurim | if I had written |
Adversative | aracibe | molenbuit skribaiko | although he may write |
Concessive | aracina | skribait-lumo | may he write |
Optative | arakini | seulsif skribaiko | would that he write |
Gerund I | arambime | skribwobu | while writing |
Gerund II | arambifi | skribavaisomu | having written |
Gerund III | aranggala | skribprevu | before writing |
Passive | arambumbi | skribaidat | it is written |
Causative or Passive | arambubumbi | skribaidinzim | I cause to be written |
Verbal Noun | arahangge, ararangge | skribé, skribiène | the writing, the writer |
Indefinite | arahale, ararale | jiēnbuite skribat | whoever writes |
Adverbial | araralame | skribu | in the manner of writing |
Adjectives
Nominal
Adjectives and adjectival phrases in Tovasala end in -i, and come either before nouns (as in English) or after (as in French):
- beli neklo (the beautiful tomcat), beli nekla (the beautiful queen cat), beli suollé (the beautiful road), veyaidune frolausomi (a sight most delightful), friedifi laprenlas (the gentle rabbit does), foarti boamiles (the strong walls), nekedlos ouramadi (the kittens in the countryside).
Elision is also observed, as in bel'aumbredla (the beautiful girl).
In a sentence of analytic SVD (subject–verb–description) syntax, the adjective is converted into a verb and eliminates zero copula:
- droiti suollé(s) (the straight road[s]) — BUT suollé droit(is)at (the road is/the roads are straight).
- l'obenaubré(s) (the new house[s]) — BUT l'obène ńaubr(is)at (the house is/the houses are new).
Comparatives and superlatives
Comparative forms of adjectives are made by adding -ausm at the end of a root; superlatives are formed with -ausom. Suppletion is thereby avoided in those forms.
- joali/joalausmi/joalausomi (good/better/best);
- beni/benausmi/benausomi (well/better/best);
- mali/malausmi/malausomi (bad/worse/worst);
- osivi/osivausmi/osivausomi (ill/worse/worst);
- aulti/aultausmi/aultausomi (high/higher/highest).
To express "less"/"least", -eusm and -eusom are used:
- bouldostaidi/bouldostaideusmi/bouldostaideusomi (important/less important/least important).
Adverbs
Nominal
Adverbs, and adverbial phrases, end with -u. This is equivalent to the English -ly, French -ment and Spanish -mente in most given cases. Examples include:
- belu (beautifully), fasilu (easily), obrantu (generously), kuimeku (at all/somewhat), fuiwobetu (in a short while; adverbial phrase).
Comparatives and superlatives
Comparative and superlative adverbs are formed in the same manner as adjectives:
- veyu/veyausmu/veyausomu (visually/more visually/most visually);
- fuaistaibilu/fuaistaibileusmu/fuaistaibileusomu (audibly/less audibly/least audibly).
Relative
Several relative adverbs are also used:
Pronoun | Interrogative | Parent morpheme | English meaning |
---|---|---|---|
jadu | kadu | ad | where |
jauradu | kauradu | maurad | when |
jovaurdu | kovaurdu | povaurd | why |
jemeku | kemeku | emek | how |
Adpositions
In Tovasala, adpositions are the same as the root forms they derive from, and also serve as standalone prepositions. Many of them are root affixes which double as postpositions after the nouns they modify.
Adposition | Case | English meaning |
---|---|---|
Possessive | ||
der | gen | of — belonging to |
den | gen.al | of — associated with |
zol | prop | with — owning |
ten | prop.al | with — having |
Sociative | ||
aseb | com | with — accompanied by |
auvek | cnj | with an associated group |
emek | instr | with the help of, aided by, via; on — supported by |
aurd | util | for, per |
opoam | opp/anti | against, versus (in opinion) |
odiem | opp/anti | against, versus (in preference) |
uslen | tsp | on behalf of, serving |
nimel | — | in charge of |
Locative | ||
ad | loc/dat | at, to; on – by means of (medium) |
obenad | — | chez (French loan) – at the house of |
int | ine | in |
intad | ine-loc | within, inside |
intaup | lat/ill | into |
inttug | ine-abl | without – outside |
tug | exe | out(side) |
tugad | abl | out of, away from |
tüvv | ela | leaving |
weg | del | off (surface), out of |
iāk | supe | on the surface of |
iākad | supe-loc | onto, upon, atop |
rovinad | — | aboard |
ault | alt | above, up, over |
ulem | sube | below, under(neath), beneath, down |
proxim | apud | near, next to, near, (near)by |
tudelad | — | beside, at the side of, next to |
otrudel | — | opposite |
aup | all | towards |
tranz | trans | through, across |
touttranz | — | throughout |
korttranz | — | along |
multint | intrs | among a group of, amid |
mẽrkint | — | amidst, in the middle of |
nult | — | beyond, past |
vernult | — | behind, beneath |
Quantitative | ||
ond | abe | without |
nend | incl | plus |
moin | exc | minus |
prolad | intr | between |
trusil | quant | among those in a set, # of |
suod...trusil | sel | among, one of |
Temporal | ||
wob | temp | during |
prev | ante | before, by (a given time) |
aprev | pcv | after, following, since, past a time |
uskem | term | till |
uskuit | term.intf | until |
Qualitative | ||
prin | ref | on – about; concerning |
nand | ess | as – in the role of |
ausik | form | like |
nalausik | neg.form | unlike |
kuem | comp | as...as/than |
Conjunctions
As with adpositions, conjunctions also assume their root forms.
Conjunction | English meaning |
---|---|
nend | and/plus |
sed | but – rather |
moin | but – except; minus |
jemek | how |
aurd | so (that), in order to/that |
ẽrgim | so – therefore |
sif | if |
hodir | or – inclusive; either...or...or both; and/or |
hoder | or – exclusive; either...or; one or the other |
nal...hoder | neither...nor |
daisen | whether |
daisen...(nal)hoder | whether...or (not) |
ausik | as – in the same way |
kuem | as...as/than |
nal | not |
povaurd | because, since, for (obs./formal) |
jiēr | that |
molen | though |
molbuit | although |
jad | where |
sedwob | whereas |
voard | whereas — being the fact that... (legal/formal) |
sifmoin | unless |
jaurad | when |
prev | before |
aprev | after |
wob | while |
depuid | since – from the time that...; afterward(s) |
ineak | whereof – of what/which |
inreak | whereof – of whom |
Interjections
Depending on the word, interjections either remain unchanged from their root forms, or add an -(a)t to them. Examples include:
- veyat (look!)
- dez (say)
- hinveyat (now see here!)
- hin (here), han (there)
- juet (cool!; all right!)
- reshan (an expression of surprise)
- suiban (whatever)
- yag (profanity catch-all)
- kal/bueb (s[...]t/c[...]p)
- veid (h[...]l)
- bouf (an expression of annoyance or dismay)
- blek (signifying disgust; equivalent to English yuck)
- bouch (this stinks; P.U.)
Notes and references
- ^ Also referred to as Haulandile (Holland).
- ^ As Mark Rosenfelder notes in this Quechua primer, "'You' and 'they' are regular plurals, formed by adding the plural suffix to the singular pronouns. That's a regularity that didn't occur to the inventor of Esperanto!"
- ^ In spite of medieval European legend, no female Pope has ever headed the Catholic Church.
- ^ The Nonsentient toponym is Bahamosaire.
- ^ Cf. English -ion.
- ^ a b *Sujaidar is ungrammatical in Tovasala.
- ^ *Sujaidantar is ungrammatical in Tovasala.
- ^ *Sujaidavar is ungrammatical in Tovasala.
- ^ von Möllendorff (1892):10.
Grammar of Tovasala: Word classes |