Grammar:Word formation

◀ Morphology

Grammar of Tovasala: Word formation

Word formation/Examples ▶

(5) Tovasala is a synthetic language capable of producing words of various lengths, and with various inflections and derivations. As such, one can make new words out of given roots and end markers.

Formulation

Rules

Base roots and affixes in Tovasala are formulated and chosen so that:

1. they can be as machine-readable as possible, as with Lojban (another constructed language); and
2. their spellings do not conflict with those of other roots or legible combinations.

Thanks to the above factors, it is possible to form new roots that combine existing ones with nonexistent or invalid strings:

• deōz- (awe), sourced from Greek, contains the genitive marker -oz at the end, but the first two letters (de) are an invalid combo ending with a vowel.
• Similarly, riānt (from the Welsh rhiant, "parent") combines the invalid ri with the progressive-aspect suffix -ant.

Extra care should be taken when forming roots that begin with l/m/t/v or d/f/z:

• duvent-, a portmanteau of English/Latin/Vietnamese/Dutch elements, stands in for the problematic dait(ạ) (data/information). (Otherwise, for instance, otr-i-dait [different data] = otr-id-ait [different-state-imp].)

Unless marked with breved vowels, etymons that resemble combinations of existing roots cannot be safely used in Tovasala:

• Official toponym Jămăika must be breved to tell it apart in writing (although not in speech) from jamaika (a woman who ought to be jamming; jam-aik-a [jam-sjv-f]). Similarly, Măndărĭnze = Mandarinze (mand-ar-inz-e; send-inf-caus-n).

Limitations

1. If the source word serves as an adposition and/or conjunction, then the Tovasala root should not end with a consonant followed by l or r (e.g. -fl, -dr, -pr, -tr), as such combos may prove unwieldy to pronounce. Interjection roots can also end with Cr; as a rule, -at is the mandatory marker.
2. Double consonants are not permitted in base roots, but are acceptable in compound forms (e.g. addez — tell [ad, "to object" + dez, "say"]).
3. Unless an underdotted ạ/ị/ụ is employed, Core roots cannot begin with any of the verb markers (-ar/-ant/-ait/-aid et al.) or tense suffixes (-lurip/-lur/-lurel/-lureng/-lir/-luvir).
4. If a root begins with l/m/t/v, then no verb markers should follow that first letter unless an ă is used to avoid morphological conflict.

Formation

Rules

1. Words are normally formed as in English and the Romance languages.
2. Of the nine word classes, only the roots of default adpositions, conjunctions, and most interjections (or stems ending therewith) can be used in isolation. Roots from the remaining classes are subject to the rules below.
   1. Nouns end in -e if the subject is inanimate or neuter; -o if masculine; or -a if feminine.
      • nây- (dog) + oben- (house) + -e (neuter marker) = nâyobène (doghouse)
      • livr- (book) + usont- (institute) + -iēn (someone from/working at) + -a (feminine marker) = livrusontiēna (female librarian; literally "female worker at a book institute")
      • prauskũr- (squirrel) + -ed (juvenile/young creature) + -o (masculine marker) + -s (plural marker) = prauskũredos (boy squirrels)
   2. Verbs end with -ar in the infinitive, -at in the third-person singular indicative, and so forth.
      • vev- (alive a) + -ar = vevar (to live; to be alive). (The default form is vevi.)
3. Emphasis is placed on the last main root (marked below in bold) in any valid combination.
   • ad- (to) + ven- (come) + -at (3sg.ind) = advenat (sbj arrives)
   • toukel- (hammer) + -emek (instrumental marker) + -u (adverb marker) = toukelemeku (with [the help of] a hammer)
4. Roots that start with a bound suffix and end with a bound prefix are not permitted, and vice versa.
5. Pronouns use the affixes allocated in their declension system, along with the verbal suffixes (in phrases such as Sif taikim... [If I were you...]). Roots combining two or more pronouns are not allowed; as a result, Latin-based mit- (with m- [I/we] and t- [you]) is substituted by Spanish- and Portuguese-sourced mand- as the Tovasala for "send".
6. Article clitics -l- and -un- cannot be conjugated as verbs nor combine with another root.
   1. -l- must be placed between the host stem + -ous and gender marker in dual forms (as in houbenousle = the two highways).
   2. Either clitic must be followed by the gender marker plus optional plural at all times. They become standalone before imported terms (les Biden), or are attached to native host stems à la Romanian (boavlé = the cow; lugunes = some games).

Summary by stem type

Affix(es)	Stem type
	Noun	Adjective	Verb	Preposition
-Ø-	Root			Preposition
Suffixes and suffixoids
Termisons and TAM particles
-e	Entity	Something that possesses the attribute; something that is the attribute's description	That which is the action; an act of doing something	That which is prep
-o/-a	Animate entity	Someone who possesses the attribute	—	Someone who is prep
-i	Associated with entity	Attribute	Associated with the action	Which is prep
-u	In the way/manner of the entity; like the entity would be or do	In the way/manner of the attribute; cf. English -ly	In the way/manner of the action	In a prep way/manner
-e-s	Entities	Things possessing the attribute; things that fit the attribute's description	Acts of doing something	Things that are prep
-o-s/-a-s	Animate entities	Sentients who possess the attribute	—	Sentients who are prep
-ar	To be the entity	To possess the attribute; to be adj	To do the action (Verb)	To be prep
-at	sbj is the entity	sbj possesses the attribute; sbj is adj	sbj does the action	sbj is prep
-ant	sbj is being the entity	sbj is possessing the attribute	sbj is doing the action	sbj is being prep
-asant	sbj is still being the entity	sbj is still possessing the attribute	sbj is still doing the action	sbj is still being prep
-ant-e	Something that is being the entity	Something that is possessing the attribute; something that is being adj	Something that is doing the action	Something that is being prep
-ant-i	That is being the entity	That is possessing the attribute; that is being adj	That is doing the action	That is being prep
-av-ar	To have been the entity	To have possessed the attribute; to have been adj	To have done the action	To have been prep
-av-at	sbj has been the entity	sbj has possessed the attribute; sbj has been adj	sbj has done the action	sbj has been prep
-av-e	Something that has been the entity	Something that has possessed the attribute; something that has been adj	Something that has done the action	Something that has been prep
-av-i	Associated with having been the entity	That has possessed the attribute; that has been adj	That has done the action	That has been prep
-anv-at	sbj has been being the entity	sbj has been possessing the attribute	sbj has been doing the action	sbj has been being prep
-asanv-at	sbj has still been the entity	sbj has still been possessing the attribute	sbj has still been doing the action	sbj has still been prep
-aij-e	An entity that is about or ready to be	Something that is about to possess the attribute; something that is about to be adj	An action about or ready to be done	Something that is about to be prep
-aij-i	About or ready to be the entity	About to possess the attribute; about to be adj	About or ready to do	About to be prep
-aij-ar	To be ready to be the entity	To be ready to possess the attribute; to be ready to be adj	To be ready to do the action	To be ready to be prep
-aij-at	sbj is about to be the entity	sbj is about to possess the attribute; sbj is about to be adj	sbj is about to do the action	sbj is about to be prep
-aij-ant	sbj is about to be being the entity	sbj is about to be possessing the attribute	sbj is about to be doing the action	sbj is about to be being prep
-aik	sbj ought to be the entity	sbj ought to possess the attribute; sbj ought to be adj	sbj ought to do the action	sbj ought to be prep
-aik-e	Something that ought to be the entity	Something that ought to possess the attribute; something that ought to be adj	Something that ought to be done	Something that ought to be prep
-aik-i	That ought to be the entity	That ought to possess the attribute; that ought to be adj	That ought to or should be done	That ought to be prep
-aid-e	—	—	Something that is done	—
-aid-i	—	—	Done (Passive)	—
-aid-ar	—	—	To be done	—
-aid-at	—	—	sbj is done	—
-aid-ant	—	—	sbj is being done	—
-aid-asant	—	—	sbj is still being done	—
-aid-av-at	—	—	sbj has been done	—
-aid-aij-at	—	—	sbj is about to be done	—
-aid-aik	—	—	sbj ought to be done	—
-ait	Be the entity!	Be adj!	Do it!	Be prep!
-aid-ait	—	—	Be done!	—
-aisom-ar	—	—	To fulfill an action	To be completely prep
-aisom-e	—	—	An action fulfilled	Something completely prep
-aubil-ar	To start being an entity	To begin possessing the attribute	To start doing an action	To start being prep
-aubil-e	An entity that has just started existence	An entity beginning to possess the attribute	An action that has begun	An entity that has begun to be prep
-aubel-ar	To cease being an entity	To no longer possess the attribute	To cease doing an action	To no longer be prep
-aubel-e	An entity that has ceased to exist	An entity no longer possessing the attribute	An action that has ceased	An entity that is no longer prep
-lurip	A recent entity	Recently the attribute	sbj recently/just did the action	sbj was recently prep
-lur	A past or ex-entity	Once or formerly the attribute	sbj did the action	sbj was prep
-lurel	An entity that once was, but is no longer	Once or formerly, but no longer, the attribute	sbj used to do the action	sbj used to be prep
-lureng	An entity that existed long ago	Possessing the attribute long ago	sbj did the action long ago	sbj was prep long ago
-lir	A future entity; an entity-to-be	Planned or anticipated to be the attribute	sbj will do the action	sbj will be prep
-luvir	An entity that would be	Which would be the attribute	...that sbj would do the action	...that sbj would be prep
People and sizes
-oz-i	Belonging to an entity; an entity's...	Belonging to something possessing the attribute; an adj entity's...	An action's...	Belonging to something that is prep; a prep entity's...
-oz-(e/o/a)	A member of an entity (group, team, or organisation)	The belongings of something possessing the attribute	That which belongs to an action	A member of something prep
-iēr-e	Something that produces the entity	Something that turns things into the attribute	Something that does the action	Something that makes things prep
-iēn-(e/o/a)	Someone who is, does, plays, comes from, or specialises/works in the entity	Someone who possesses the attribute; someone who is adj	Someone who does the action	Someone who is prep
-odr-(e/o/a)	A child (son/daughter) or progeny of an animate entity; an offspring or spinoff of an inanimate entity	A child who is adj	—	—
-uvel-(e/o/a)	A step-relative of an animate entity; an ersatz form of an inanimate entity	An ersatz, adj entity	An ersatz action	—
-oajan-(e/o/a)	A god-relative of an animate entity	A god-relative who is adj	—	—
-eb-(e/o/a)	Animate newborn entity	A baby/newborn who possesses the attribute; a baby/newborn who is adj	—	A baby/newborn who is prep
-ed-(e/o/a)	Juvenile/young entity	A young entity possessing the attribute; a youngster who is adj	—	A young entity that is prep
-eld-(e/o/a)	Old/elder entity	An old entity possessing the attribute; an old entity that is adj	—	An old entity that is prep
-et-(e/o/a)	Diminutive form of entity	Something that is a little/briefly adj	Brief action	Something that is a little prep
-ead-(e/o/a)	Medium-sized entity	Something that is moderately adj	Moderate action	Something that is moderately prep
-ard-(e/o/a)	Augmentative entity	Something that is greatly adj	Extended action	Something that is greatly prep
-et-i	Associated with a diminutive form of the entity	A little/briefly adj	Associated with the brief action	A little prep
-ead-i	Associated with a midsized form of the entity	Moderately adj	Associated with the moderate action	Moderately prep
-ard-i	Associated with an augmentative form of the entity	Greatly adj	Associated with the extended action	Greatly prep
-et-ar	To be a miniature form of the entity	To be a little/briefly adj	To do an action briefly	To be a little prep
-ead-ar	To be a midsized form of the entity	To be moderately adj	To do an action moderately	To be moderately prep
-ard-ar	To be a large version of the entity	To be greatly adj	To do a prolonged action	To be greatly prep
-aubim-e	—	A small thing that is adj	—	—
-aubam-e	—	A midsized thing that is adj	—	—
-aubaum-e	—	A small thing that is adj	—	—
Comparatives and superlatives
-ausm-i	—	More adj/adj-er	—	—
-ausom-i	—	Most adj/adj-est	—	—
-eusm-i	—	Less adj	—	—
-eusom-i	—	Least adj	—	—
-ausm-e	—	Something more adj/adj-er	—	—
-ausom-e	—	Something most adj/adj-est	—	—
-eusm-e	—	Something less adj	—	—
-eusom-e	—	Something least adj	—	—
-ausm-i	—	More adj-ly	—	—
-ausom-i	—	Most adj-ly	—	—
-eusm-i	—	Less adj-ly	—	—
-eusom-i	—	Least adj-ly	—	—
Emphasis
-iruj-e	An entity as emphasis	An adj entity as emphasis	An action as emphasis	A prep entity as emphasis
-iruj-i	Pertaining to the entity as emphasis	adj as emphasis	Associated with the action as emphasis	Which is prep as emphasis
-iruj-ar	To be the entity as emphasis	To be adj as emphasis	To do the action as emphasis	To be prep as emphasis
-uit-e	A stronger variant of the entity	An entity that is strongly adj	A serious action	That which is really prep
-uit-i	Associated with a stronger variant of the entity	Strongly, seriously, or really adj	Associated with serious actions	Really prep
-uit-ar	To be a stronger variant of the entity	To be strongly adj	To seriously do the action	To be really prep
Verbal/duration particles
-abil-i	Able to be the entity	Able to possess the attribute; able to be adj	Able to do the entity	Able to be prep
-abil-e	Something that can be the entity	Something able to possess the attribute; something that can be adj	A potential action	A potential state of being prep
-abil-ar	To be able to be the entity	To be able to possess the attribute; to be able to be adj	To be able to do the action	To be able to be prep
-abil-id-e	The ability of being the entity	The ability of possessing the attribute; the ability of being adj	The ability of doing the action	The ability to be prep
-aibil-i	—	—	Able to be done	—
-aibil-e	—	—	Something that can be done	—
-aibil-ar	—	—	To have the potential to be done	—
aibil-id-e	—	—	The ability of an action being done	—
-ain-e	The result of being the entity	The result of being adj	The result of the action	The result of being prep
-ouhaum-i	Often or frequently the entity	Often or frequently adj	Often or frequently the action	Often or frequently prep
-ouhaum-e	An occasional or frequent entity	Something often or frequently adj	A frequent action	Something often or frequently prep
-ouhaum-ar	To be the entity often or frequently	To possess the attribute often or frequently; to be adj often or frequently	To do the action often or frequently	To often or frequently be prep
-oguil-i	Sometimes the entity	Sometimes adj	Sometimes the action	Sometimes prep
oguil-e	A part-time entity	Something occasionally adj	A part-time action	Something occasionally prep
-oguil-ar	To be the entity sometimes	To be sometimes adj	To do the action sometimes	To be sometimes prep
-oajem-i	Momentarily the entity	Momentarily adj	Momentarily the action	Momentarily prep
-oajem-e	A momentary entity; something that appears for a split second	Something momentarily adj	A momentary action	Something momentarily prep
-oajem-ar	To be the entity for a split second	To be adj for a moment	To do the action in a flash	To be prep for a moment
-esel-i	Maybe, perhaps, or probably related to the entity	Maybe or perhaps adj	Maybe or perhaps related to the action	Maybe or perhaps prep
-esel-e	A probable entity	Something probably or perhaps adj	A probable action	Something probably or perhaps prep
-esel-ar	To probably be the entity	To probably possess the attribute; to probably be adj	To probably do the action	To probably be prep
-odiv-at	What about the entity?	What if sbj were adj?	What if sbj should do the action?	What if sbj were prep?
-aubog-i	In favour or support of an entity; pro-entity	In favour of the attribute	In favour or support of the action; pro-action	—
-aubog-e	Something that favours or supports an entity	Something that favours the attribute	Something that favours or supports the action	—
-aubog-ar	To favour or support an entity; to be pro-entity	To favour the attribute	To favour or support the action; to be pro-action	—
-opoam-i	Against an entity; anti-entity	Against the attribute	Against the action; anti-action	—
-opoam-e	Something that opposes an entity	Something that opposes the attribute	Something that opposes the action	—
-opoam-ar	To oppose an entity; to be anti-entity	To oppose the attribute	To oppose the action; to be anti-action	—
Attributionals
-un-et-e	Part or some of the entity	Part or some of which possesses the attribute	Part or some of the action	—
-euz-i	Full of the entity	Full of the attribute	Full of the action	—
-euz-e	Something that is full of the entity	Something that is full of the attribute	Something that is full of the action	—
-euz-ar	To be full of the entity	To be full of the attribute	To be full of the action	—
-ail-i	Pertaining/relating to the entity	Pertaining/relating to the attribute	Pertaining/relating to the action	Pertaining/relating to prep
-if-i	Characterised by the entity	Characterised by the attribute	Characterised by the action	—
-id-e	The state, quality, or condition of being the entity; cf. English -(i)ty/-ness/-hood/-dom	The state, quality, or condition associated with the attribute	The state, quality, or condition associated with the action	The state, quality, or condition of being prep
-oid-i	Like/in the form of the entity	Like/in the form of the attribute	Like/in the form of the action	—
Causatives
-inz-ar	To cause the entity to appear	To cause adj things to appear	To cause (someone to do) the action	To make prep things appear
-inz-aid-i	Transformed with instances of the entity	Transformed with adj entities	Caused (by an agent)	Transformed with prep entities
-inz-aid-ar	To be transformed with instances of the entity	To be transformed with adj entities	To be caused (by an agent)	To be transformed with prep entities
-iz-ar	To turn (an entity) into another entity	To turn an entity adj	To turn an entity into the action	To render an entity prep
-oudr-ar	To be turned into the entity	To be turned adj	To be turned into the action	To be rendered as prep
-oudr-i	Turned into the entity	Turned adj	Turned into the action	Turned into a prep entity
-ẽrgim-u	Caused by/because of the entity	Caused by/because of the attribute	Caused by/because of the action	Caused by/because of being prep
Specialties
-iōm-e	An element named after the entity	An element possessing the attribute	An element named after the action	An element named after prep
-tanul-e	The study of the entity; the field associated with the entity	The study of the attribute; the field associated with the attribute	The study of the action; the field associated with the action	The field associated with prep
-eand-e	A tool devoted to the entity	A tool that is adj	A tool for doing the action	A tool that is prep
-iz-eand-e	A tool that tranforms things into the entity	A tool for making things adj	—	A tool for making things prep
-ineald-e	A machine devoted to the entity	A machine that is adj	A machine for doing the action	A machine that is prep
-iz-ineald-e	A machine that transforms things into the entity	A machine for making things adj	—	A machine for making things prep
Prefixes and prefixoids
Functionals
nal-	Not the entity	Not the attribute	sbj does not do the action	sbj is not prep
nem-	Not the entity in question	Not possessing the attribute	sbj does not do the action in question	sbj is not prep in question
rel-	Something that is the entity again	Possessing the attribute once again	sbj redoes/repeats the action	sbj is prep again
ver-	The entity in reverse	The inverse of the attribute	sbj does the action in reverse, or reverses/reverts it	sbj is prep, but in reverse
voul-	sbj wants to be the entity	sbj wants to be adj	sbj wants to do the action	sbj wants to be prep
soul-	sbj wishes to be the entity	sbj wishes to be adj	sbj wishes to do the action	sbj wishes to be prep
boul-	sbj needs to be the entity	sbj needs to be adj	sbj needs to/must do the action	sbj needs to be prep
seb-	A self-serving entity	Self-adj	An action done by oneself	Self-prep
shoar-	Entities to each other	adj towards one another	An action done by each other/one another	prep in relation to each other
tep-	Great-/grand-	—	—	—
tuen-	A full or complete entity	Completely or totally adj; omni-adj	Full action	Completely prep
Affects
jout-	A sudden or unexpected entity	Suddenly or unexpectedly adj	A sudden or unexpected action	Suddenly or unexpectedly prep
vasit-	Intentional entity	Intentionally adj	Intentional action	Intentionally prep
tasiv-	Accidental entity	adj by accident	Accidental/unintended action	prep by accident
International roots
hîdrol-	Hydro-entity	Hydro-adj	Hydro-action	—
hîpẽr-	Hyper-entity	Hyper-adj	Hyper-action	—
mîkrol-	Micro-entity	Micro-adj	Micro-action	—
saub-	A sub-entity	Sub-adj	Sub-action	—
supẽr-	Super-entity	Super-adj	Super-action	—
télev-	Something transmitted from afar; tele-entity	Tele-adj	Something done from afar; tele-action	—

Notes

◀ Morphology

Grammar of Tovasala: Word formation

Word formation/Examples ▶

(5)